eChapters

Take 1 g phenolpathalin powder in a 100 ml volumetric flask. Then add volume up to 100 ml by ethanol (Ethyl alcohol).

Digestion Mixure : This is a mixture of two salt. That is potassium sulfate and cupper sulfate with 9:1 ratio (90 g Potassium sulfate + 10 g Copper sulphate).

100 ppm ‘P’ : By dissolving oven dry KH2 PO4 salt. Take 0.4393 gm of KH2 PO4 and volume to 1 ltr that gives 100 ppm ‘P’.

Take 5 ml/2.5 ml aliquot in a 25 ml volumetric flask.

6.25 HNO3 (for 2 ltr) : Take 181 ml of conc HNO3 and diluted to 2 ltr in a volumetric flask.

Aim : To determine the Calcium in plant sample.

Aim : To determine the Magnesium in plant sample.

Soil is the most fundamental resource to fulfill basic requirements of food, fiber and shelter of human race. Although soil is perceived as something of insignificant value and it is considered as dirt but humans cannot survive without soil. Soil forms
basis for all terrestrial life. Soil provides a wide range of ecosystem services (Table 1) that make humankind to survive and progress.

Soil genesis, or pedogenesis, is the combined effect of physical, chemical, biological and anthropogenic processes working on soil parent material (rocks & minerals). Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated and colloids are washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layers. These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity.

Soil physics is the study of soil’s physical properties and processes. Soil physics deals with the dynamics of physical soil components and their phases as solid, liquids, and gases. Physical properties of soil include texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and water content. The physical properties depend on the amount, size, shape and arrangement and mineral composition of its particles , kind and amount of organic matter and the volume and form of its pores and the way they are occupied by water, air at a particular time.

Soil Chemistry is the study of chemical composition of soil in relation to crop needs. It deals with the chemical constitution of the soil, the chemical properties and the chemical reactions in soils. Traditional soil chemistry focuses on chemical and biochemical reactions in soils that influence nutrient availability for plant growth, and potential environmental consequences associated with inorganic and organic fertilization. Soil chemistry has increasingly focused on soil genesis and the environment over the past few decades.

Soil minerals are naturally formed inorganic compounds with definite chemical composition and characteristic geometric (crystalline) form. They are classified as primary and secondary minerals, silicates and non-silicates minerals, and crystalline and non-crystalline minerals. Primary minerals have not been significantly altered chemically since deposition or crystallization from molten magma and are usually found in the sand and coarse silt fractions. Secondary minerals form as a result of the alteration of primary minerals by weathering and are found in the clay and fine silt fractions.

Soil organic matter is any material produced originally by living organisms (plant or animal) that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition process. At any given time, it consists of a range of materials from the intact original tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials known as humus. Soil organic matter (SOM) is the organic component of soil, consisting of three primary parts including plant residues and living soil organisms, decomposing (active) organic matter, and stable organic matter (humus). Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissue.

Study of living organisms in soil is referred to as soil biology (Greek word bios= life, logos = study). The soil is teeming with millions of living organisms which make it a living and a dynamic system.

Soil degradation is defined as a decrement in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries. Degraded soils have a deteriorated health status such, that they do not provide the normal goods and services of the particular soil in its ecosystem. Soil degradation is the physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality.

The soils which owe characteristics that they cannot be economically used for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problematic soils. Different kinds of problematic soils viz., Physical, chemical and biological problematic soils exists and pose problems of crop production.

Soil fertility is defined as the quality that enables the soil to provide proper nutrient compounds in proper amounts and in proper balance for the growth of specified plants. Soil fertility is also defined as the ability of soil to supply adequately the nutrients normally taken from the soil by plants.

The word “Manure” is originated from the French word “Manoeuvrer” which refers to “work with soil”. The word Manure is also originate from Latin word “Manu” (hand) and operate (to work). Manures are the substances which are organic in nature, capable of supplying plant nutrients in available form, bulky in nature having low analytical value and having no definite composition and most of them are obtained from animal and plant waste products. Formerly, the word in use was “Dung ”in English (at present fertilizer).

Soil is a dynamic, vital living natural resource. Soil health is the condition of the soil and its potential to sustain biological functions, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health. It is qualitative trait of soil. Healthy soil is the foundation for profitable, productive, and environment friendly agricultural systems.

Soil pollution is defined as presence of xenobiotics (e.g. chemical compounds, radioactive elements) that alters the soil properties viz., both chemical, physical and biological properties of soil. Soil pollution, including heavy metals, may be of natural origin, like volcanic eruptions, atmospheric lightning, animal excrements or ore leaching. Nevertheless, human activity and mostly chemical industry, mining and metallurgy, as well as municipal waste management and traffic emissions are the main source of environmental pollution.

Geographic location of India is in Northern hemisphers and located between 80 4' & 370 6' N latitude and 640 7' & 970 25' E longitude. Extent of area is 329 M Ha or 329 x 104 Sq.Km or 3.29 MSq.Km. The physiography of India can be broadly grouped into triangular plateau, mountains, Indo-gangetic plains and islands. India is divided into twenty agro ecological regions and sixty five agro ecological sub regions as per NBSS and LUP. Agro ecological regions( AER) is referred to identification and demarcation of land units having comparable landform, soils, bioclimatic conditions and the length of growing period (LGP).

Water required for irrigation of cropped land is being degraded in terms of quantity and quality due to fast increasing demand for its use. Furthermore, the soil quality and crop productivity is linked to the quality of the water available for irrigation. In general, evaluation of irrigation water quality should focus on salt content, sodium concentration, the occurrence of nutrients and trace elements, alkalinity, acidity, and hardness of the water.

Introduction

Food security is defined as "a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" (The State of Food Insecurity, 2001) (see http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/). As of 2015, the concept of food security has mostly focused on food calories rather than the quality and nutrition of food. Thus, food security usually emphasizes food quantity and therefore "nutrition security" is used for the quality dimension. The concept of food security has four dimensions: availability, accessibility, utilization and vulnerability. The interactions among them determine how food secure a country is or how adequate, steady and risk-free food consumption is at the household and individual levels (Kumar and Ayyappan, 2014). Though substantial progress has been achieved in reducing food insecurity, maintaining food security at the national and household level is a major challenge for India (Singh, 2014). The present article briefs about global and Indian scenarios on food security aspects, and the key role of livestock in achieving zero hunger by means of livestock-derived foods such as milk, egg and meat products.

Introduction

In the last two decades, there has been a significant change in the Indian society, not only in the terms of economics following the post 1991 reforms but also in the dietary and health sectors. There is an increasing demand for livestock products, as a result the farming systems are becoming more and more intensive. With the high input intensive agricultural practices on the one hand, the limitations in terms of environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, health hazards to consumers, etc. are also on the rise which are acting as limiting factors to continue on the same path of intensification. To achieve sustainable intensification of agriculture, mixed crop-livestock systems, combining livestock and cash crops at farm level, are considered to be a good alternative (Russelle et al, 2007; Wilkins, 2008; Ryschawy et al., 2012). These practices benefit the environment by improving nutrient cycling (Hendrickson et al., 2008). In the agriculture based states of India, about 50% of the income is from the crop-livestock systems (Deshingkar et al., 2008). Mixed crop-livestock systems also generate higher economic efficiency in saving production costs through complementaries between crop and livestock (Wilkins, 2008). Apart from direct income by diversifying production, there is an added advantage of reducing risks with regard to market fluctuations (Russelle et al., 2007).

Introduction

Meat has become an integral part of human food to meet the essential nutrients, like proteins. For a balanced diet, a good biological availability of meat is preferred in the modern day era. The per capita consumption of meat in India is only 14g per day as against the actual requirement of 125g. Non availability of quality meat and its exorbitant prices have restricted meat consumption. Increasing the meat production through intensive rearing of various meat animals will help to meet the ever growing demand of a balanced human diet. In the modern era and educational status social taboos are also getting relegated with need of quality proteins.

The very important role of pigs in human life is control of environmental pollution by scavenging the biological waste. Pig converts biological waste material to quality proteins in the form of pork. Pigs have a rapid growth rate, high reproductive efficacy, require comparatively less space, and can be reared on small scale in backyards or as commercial units.

Introduction

India contributes about 5% to the world's eggs and 2.25% to chicken production (FAOSTAT, 2013). Indian Poultry Sector has been one of the fastest growing components of Indian economy with an annual compound growth rate of about 6% and 12% in egg broiler production, respectively. Poultry sector accounts for about 1% of the India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 11.7% of the livestock GDP (National Account Statistics, 2013). With a turnover of over ?600 billion, the sector provides employment to over six million people. The annual per capita availability has increased from 7 eggs in 1961 to 58 eggs in 2012; and poultry meat from 0.16 kg to 2.21 kg during the same period. However, the present availability levels are still far below the ICMR recommendations of 180 eggs and 11 kg meat per capita per annum. Ironically, consumption of poultry products has been highly skewed in favour of urban population. In fact, only 31% of the population residing in urban areas consumes 65% eggs and 70% of poultry meat and in a typical Indian village the egg consumption is not more than 10 eggs per capita per year. Despite higher prices of poultry products in rural areas, the penetrability and reach of poultry products have remained limited in rural India owing to fragmented markets and infrastructural bottlenecks. Sekhon and Tejinder (2007) have estimated that under a moderate growth scenario of 6% per annum in the Country's GDP the demand for meat and eggs is likely to shoot up to 9.7 and 15.32 MMT by 2021 and 2030, respectively. India would be easily able to meet this demand provided, the poultry egg and meat production continue to grow at the current levels.

Introduction

Pastoralism involving rearing of different livestock species makes significant contributions to the economy of developing countries, both in terms of providing employment and income opportunities and in supplying nutrition to rural poor. Pastoralism generally has a mobile aspect, and movement of animal herds in search of fresh pastures and water is a key feature qualifying pastoralism. The term nomadic is used when mobility is high and in irregular patterns; transhumant when there are regular back-and-forth movements between relatively fixed locations; and sedentary for the rest. Pastoralists inhabit zones where the potential for crop cultivation is limited due to steep terrain, extreme temperatures and low and highly variable rainfall. Within this unpredictable, vulnerable and dynamic environment, they have developed successful mechanisms of adaptation to maintain an ecological balance between themselves and the natural environment. Thus, pastoralism is a successful strategy to support a population on less productive land that adapts well to the environment. Transhumance is the seasonal migration of livestock and pastoralists between higher and lower pastures.

Introduction

Advancement in agricultural research has increased productivity however, in recent years, poor linkage of research - extension services hampering the growth of agriculture sector. Firstly, the research problems are investigated without considering the priority of agricultural producers Secondly, knowledge generated at the agriculture research stations is not effectively transferred to the producers. Many studies have identified the weaknesses in the linkages between the research and extension institutions are the major reason for development of technology and its transfer. In most countries including our country, the communication between research and extension agencies is weak (USAID 1982, FAO 1984). Research-extension-farmer linkages are seen to be absent or weak in many instances. At the same time, there are duplications of efforts, with a multiplicity of agents attending to extension work without adequate coordination (Planning Commission, 2008). This ineffective linkage between research and extension has impeded the generation and transfer of technology appropriate for small-scale and resource poor farmers, particularly those who work in relatively low productive and heterogeneous agro-ecological areas (Ewell 1989). Problems in technology generation and transfer arise because these components are considered in isolation (World Bank 1985).

Introduction

The livestock occupies a significant niche in the social fabric of the Indian subcontinent from the dawn of civilization. During the initial days of civilization, animals served human society in many ways. The livestock is not only producing high biological value products i.e., milk, meat but also provide manure for maintaining soil health, draught power for crop production, wool and fiber for apparel industry, low cost means of transport in rural and desert areas, companion for sports and of course a "readily disposable asset" for any kind of emergency expenditure. Hence, livestock represents one of the major driving forces for the growth of the rural economy. As a result, the livestock industry becomes one of the niche sectors of the national economy to propel faster growth along with securing the livelihood of millions of people. During the twentieth century, balanced ration was the key focal point of animal nutrition research either for enhancing the productivity or managing the livestock economy through interventions of knowledge in the areas of improvement of poor quality roughages, bypass protein, bypass fat, mineral supplements, complete feed blocks, vitamins, area specific mineral mixture, feed additives such as antibiotics, ionophores, hormones etc. However, during the beginning of the twenty first century, several issues appeared pertaining to the livestock sector such as feed quality and safety, designer animal products, healthy animal products, ecological treatment for digestive disorder, organic animal production, residues of antibiotics, hormones and heavy metals in accordance with the consumer preference and awareness. In the light of concerns on "transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from animal to human", several nations have imposed bans on application of antibiotics as feed additives. Keeping in view the above perspective, research is underway around the world to find alternatives to antibiotics to guard the gastrointestinal of animals without compromising productivity or product quality of livestock.

Introduction

The modern biotechnologies (animal cloning, stem cells, and transgenesis) have contributed immensely to increasing livestock productivity, particularly in developed countries, and could help to alleviate poverty and hunger, reduce the threats of diseases and ensure environmental sustainability in developing countries. A wide range of biotechnologies are available and have already been used in developing countries in the animal science disciplines, i.e., animal reproduction, genetics and breeding; animal nutrition and production; and animal health. In animal reproduction, genetics and breeding, artificial insemination (AI) has perhaps been the most widely applied animal biotechnology, particularly in combination with cryopreservation, allowing significant genetic improvement for productivity as well as the global dissemination of selected male germplasm. Complementary technologies such as monitoring reproductive hormones, oestrus synchronization and semen sexing can improve the efficiency of AI. Embryo transfer provides the same opportunities for females, albeit on a much smaller scale and at a much greater price. Biotechnologies in animal health are used to increase the precision of disease diagnosis as well as for disease control and treatment. The Biotechnology Industry Organization claims that the genetic engineering of animals in agriculture offers ''tremendous benefit to the animal by enhancing health, well-being and animal welfare'' (Gottlieb and Wheeler 2008). Further, improvements are still needed in product composition and production efficiency, especially in growth, disease resistance, and reproduction. In this regard, transgenic animals stem cells, cloning and other emerging biotechnologies will have important roles in producing more and higher quality animal food.

Introduction

During the last decade, there has been a dramatic increase in use of artificial insemination (AI) by commercial swine producers in many European countries. Till 1990, less than 7% of sows & gilt in the USA were bred by Artificial Insemination. Today, over 70% of the animals are bred by AI. Maybe in a couple of years all swine producers will probably utilize this technology.

In India, it is still in infant stage. Some research work has already been done in scattered ways in various Research Institutes but it is still in the four walls of the laboratory. Some Govt. farms have been doing AI in swine with liquid semen.

Pig is the most important livestock in all Northeastern Hill States and there is no superior indigenous germplasm available in this region. Productivity of local pigs is very low. All through, improvement programmes had undertaken in different state Govt. farms, Central Govt. farms through upgrading with the help of suitable exotic pig breeds like Hampshire, Large Black, and Large White Yorkshire etc. Superior germplasm was distributed to farmers for better productivity. But, improvement till date is not impressive due to lack of superior germless, high feed cost, lack of breeder farmers and lack of incentives to the poor farmers. Maintenance of breeding boar for small farmers is very expensive not only in individual capacity but also on community basis. So, AI is the only tool for quicker, safer, quicker and economic why out for swine improvement like cattle.

Introduction

The concept of feeding system of different aquatic components of the aquaculture is not simple like that of domestic animals where feed, feeding and the animals can be observed closely and manipulated at once. In case of aquaculture both biotic and abiotic factors play an important role in feeding as well as the growth of the animal. Factors like water temperature, dissolved oxygen, light intensity, etc. regulate the intake of feeding, its digestion and assimilation. Conditioning factor, feed conversion rate, survival rate, percent weight gain, daily weight gain, specific growth rate are some of the parameters used routinely to monitor the effects of feeding on growth performance of the fish.

In aquaculture, supplementary feed is provided in conjunction with the available natural food such as plankton, periphyton, benthic organisms, aquatic plants etc. Aquaculture is a feed-based industry, with artificial feed accounting for major expenditure exceeding 60% of total operational cost. In India, freshwater aquaculture is mainly carp-based, which accounts for about 89% of total aquaculture production (Ayyappan and Jena, 1998). Successful and sustainable aquaculture depends upon the provision of nutritionally adequate, eco-friendly and economically viable artificial feeds. Effective utilization of feed depends upon many factors such as acceptability of the feed, its digestion, assimilation etc. apart from other rearing management protocols.

Introduction

Any work condition revolves around three main components - the man, machine and environment. 'Man'-is represented by the worker who is either the controller or the executor of an action. Therefore the work output depends on how efficiently the workers are performing. In this context, the health of the worker is of utmost importance. It is one of the prime supporting pillars of productivity. If the health condition declines, efficiency is reduced and productivity suffers. Work involves a variety of physical and cognitive activities performed to achieve a desired or specified productivity. It may include a single individual or a small or large group of people as the worker. It is characterized by a specified duration, specific speed or work pace and a required amount of effort. The performance and efficiency expected from the workers have a direct bearing on the work process or work tool and the work environment. All these stress the bodily systems and affect the health of the worker. The stress could be classified as physiological stress and psychological stress Occupational health deals with the study and maintenance of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in the workplace (WHO, 1957). Occupational Physiology and Ergonomics are related branches of Occupational health that are in particular concerned with the study and maintenance of health and well-being during work.

Introduction

The science of Biotechnology has been making every effort to create new opportunities for the welfare of humanity. Modern biotechnological tools are applied in India to boost fish production through aquaculture as well as conservation of the vast aquatic resources of the country for sustainable utilization. Transgenic technology is widely used in biotechnology, from the generation of genetically modified (GM) foods to the production of pharmaceutical proteins. This technology has been successfully used to develop fast growing super-fish stocks for aquaculture. The main reasons for genetic manipulation of species used in aquaculture are to enhance the growth and efficiency of food conservation, to increase tolerance to environmental variables like temperature and salinity, to produce new colour variants of ornamental fishes, to increase the resistance of species to pathogens, etc. Though the conventional selective breeding approach has proven to genetically upgrade rohu19, it is a rather time consuming process. Traditional selective breeding approaches in combination with transgenesis can bring about faster improvement of selected traits.

Introduction

Mineral imbalance in the animal body produces several problems. Normal dairy animals experience constantly changing nutrient demands and environmental stress during pregnancy and lactation. In the first part of the cycle the negative balance must be held to minimum, later the reserves must be replenished through fine tuned nutritional support for optimum production of the dairy animals. Inadequate blood calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), or potassium (K) concentrations can cause a dairy animal to lose the ability to rise to her feet as these elements are necessary for nerve and muscle function and are therefore of particular concern in the newly calved dairy animal. Mechanisms for maintaining blood status of these elements concentrations perform efficiently most of the time but occasionally these homeostatic mechanisms fail and metabolic diseases such as milk fever occur. Understanding about cause and predisposing factors behind the same may be helpful to develop strategies to avoid these disorders.

Macro elements have a significant role in normal functioning of the body, including proper reproduction and production. Imbalance of these elements in the body of a peri parturient animal creates severe problems to the animal body and even the productivity of the animal gets seriously affected. Among the macro elements calcium, phosphorus and magnesium with cation-anion balancing elements (sodium, potassium and chlorine) play an important role in normal health of dairy animals during the parturition period.

Introduction

During transition period and lactation, the high-producing dairy cows undergo a period of extensive tissue catabolism because of negative nutrient balance. Homeorrhetic mechanism at this stage ensures that nutrients are partitioned to favour the growth of fetus prepartum and meet the demand of nutrients in early lactation. Simultaneously the homeostasis secures survival of the animal body functions. However, a decline in feed intake in transition period leads to metabolic disturbances and low milk production in early lactation. The postpartum negative nutrient balance impairs immune and reproductive functions in dairy cows and buffaloes. The increased demand for nutrients and decreased dry matter intake results in low circulating glucose and insulin levels and elevated non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and ketone bodies postpartum. The energetic status of a cow or buffalo modulates the secretion of hormones that play key roles in growth of ovarian follicles, ovulation, corpus luteum (CL) formation, and oocyte competence. The NEBAL not only limits milk production potential but also has a detrimental effect on immune cells. Negative nutrient balance is associated with changes in the pattern of ovarian follicle growth and oocyte quality and alteration in endocrines. In addition, cows under negative nutrient balance have extended periods of anovulation. These changes could be minimized by supplementing energy rich supplements like prilled fat or any bypass fat preparations.

Introduction

"The new science of nutrigenomics teaches us what specific foods tell your genes. What you eat directly determines the genetic messages your body receives. These messages, in turn, control all the molecules that constitute your metabolism: the molecules that tell your body to burn calories or store them. If you can learn the language of your genes and control the messages and instructions they give your body and your metabolism, you can radically alter how food interacts with your body, lose weight, and optimize your health." (Mark Hyman 2006).

Nutrients have long been considered merely as fuel or cofactors however, it is accepted that diet and feeding strategies play an important role in determining the basic physiological processes that influence the health and wellbeing of animals and ultimately influence the efficiency of production. Traditional research related to animal nutrition mainly deals with either deficiency or excess of the particular nutrient which affects their health and productivity. Subsequently, it was appreciated that nutrients can themselves participate in the regulation of metabolic pathways, for instance through the allosteric regulation of specific enzymes, or by modulating hormone secretion. Shifting of balance between health and disease states involves the complex interplay of genes and the environment, which includes nutrients. The use of systems biology approach in nutrition has attracted both scientists and industrialists during recent decades and a link between diet and health is well established. However, it has often been difficult to easily evaluate the effects of specific nutrients, combinations of nutrients and nutrient interactions because of the lack of straightforward biological indicators that respond to even the simplest changes in nutrition or nutritional status.

Introduction

Increasing public concern regarding the use of pharmaceuticals in livestock feeding due to the emergence of drug resistance has led to an enhanced interest to plant derived bioactive compounds as alternative means to improve livestock health and production. Plants bioactive compounds are the plant secondary metabolites having pharmacological or toxicological effects in animals. Secondary metabolites are formed within the plants as well the primary biosynthetic and metabolic routes for compounds associated with plant growth and development, and are considered as products of biochemical deviate in the plant cells and not required daily for the performance of the plant. Some of them are found to have various important functions such as protection, attraction or signaling in the plants. Most species of plants seem to be competent in synthesizing such compounds. Plants with potent bioactive compounds are often characterized as both poisonous and medicinal, and a beneficial or an adverse effect may depend on the quantity eaten by the animal. Some tropical tree leaves and typical food and feed plants with bioactive compounds with less prominent effects, their intakes are usually considered as advantageous.

Introduction

Genetic programs in livestock have been extensively used to improve their productivity over the last 50 years. The traditional approach of breeding, based on quantitative genetics principle, has been very successful (Schaeffer, 2006), without knowledge of genes increasing or decreasing in herds. Effective progeny testing program and use of genetically proven bulls have made drastic genetic improvement in livestock populations. Further advances in computation for genetic merit have further added to improvement process. Livestock producers presently are focusing on overall development of livestock with improved health, production, reproduction and longevity and therefore, the traits are becoming the part of selection program (Decker et al., 2009). Advancement in molecular biology along with high-throughput genotyping has led to discovery of a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in livestock (Van Tassell et al., 2008). SNP arrays covering the entire genome may explain most of the genetic variation in important traits of livestock (Meuwissen et al., 2001). These SNPs may act as molecular markers and be used as a substitute for phenotypic selection. This process, in a broad sense is known as molecular or marker-assisted breeding and describes selection strategies including marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genome wide selection (GWS) or genomic selection (GS).

Introduction

Water resource is imperative for the survival of all life-forms on planet earth and defines the limits of sustainable development, without any substitute. Only 2.5% of all water on the earth is freshwater, and of that, around 0.5% is accessible through ground or surface water supplies. The increasing world population, industrialization and climate change is putting additional pressure on water resources. This is also true for livestock sector. As per prediction equations, the requirement of water for livestock will rise from 2.3 billion m³ in 2000 to 2.8 billion m³in 2025 and 3.2 billion m³ in 2050 (Hedge, 2012).

The balance between humanity's demands and the quantity available is already precarious (Karin et al, 2002). Additionally, climate change poses a serious threat to water resources as the climate system and the hydrological cycles are intimately linked, and any variability in climate affects the hydrological cycle. The World Bank report on the water and climate change inter-linkages also reiterated that climate change could profoundly alter future patterns of both water availability and use, thereby increasing levels of water stress and insecurity, both at the global scale and in sectors that depend on water (Alavian et al., 2009).

Introduction

In developing countries, ruminants thrive mainly on poor quality feeds and pastures, whose nutritive value is poor. They are having a low content of nitrogen, energy, minerals and vitamins and high content of lignin and silica, which limit their efficient utilization by ruminants. Therefore, these poor quality feeds and fodder needs to be upgraded in terms of their nutritive value using various treatments like physical, chemical, physico chemical and biological methods to improve intake and utilization of nutrients from poor quality roughages. However, supplementation of critical nutrients like energy, protein, minerals, vitamins also improved the productivity and health of the ruminants (Dass et al., 2011). Availability of oil cakes as protein supplement in developing countries is very poor and at a very high price, This has led to use of non-protein nitrogen source as urea, to compensate for the nitrogen deficiency of fibrous feeds (Dutta et al., 2009). Thus, enhancing intake, digestibility and availability of nutrients from poor quality roughages are only possible through optimization of rumen fermentation. The use of solid multi-nutrient block supplementation /urea-molasses blocks/ multi nutrients blocks/ pashu chocolates to provide optimum levels of various nutrients primarily for better growth of rumen micro organisms. They need rich sources of fermentable nitrogen, minerals and vitamins, which are lacking in the fibrous feeds like cereal straws (Sahoo et al, 2009). This offer several advantages such as easy transport, storage and handling, and reduced risks of poisoning as compared with other approaches, such as giving a small amount of urea in drinking water, sprinkling of urea solution on fibrous feeds before feeding, or urea-ammonization of crop residues (Dutta et al ., 2009).

Introduction

Global warming is chiefly due to combustion of fossil fuels for multifarious energy needs, causing emission of greenhouse gases which trap energy from the sun leading to warming. These climate changes bring in variation in patterns and emergence of new zoonotic diseases to newer areas. These changes sometimes create conducive conditions for the propagation of insect vectors. History shows that most of the diseases have a direct correlation with climatic changes. The survival and propagation of pathogens are directly related to temperature and humidity etc. Extreme shifts in weather patterns resulting from global warming and climate changes adversely affect the ecosystem resulting in new diseases, re-emergence of earlier diseases including emergence of zoonotic diseases. The emergence of the new cholera strain O: 139 and outbreaks of Dengue, West Nile virus and Rift Valley fever in newer and non-endemic areas have been linked with the El Nino effect. The spread of disease agents may be facilitated by factors including environmental conditions, the presence and availability of suitable hosts, the arthropod's feeding behavior and host preferences.

Livestock poisoning by plants is often a result of management errors, range conditions, or the type of animal, rather than just the presence of poisonous plants. Forage availability can be influenced by drought, overgrazing and snow storms, or altered grazing patterns. Animals can become overly hungry during transportation or other management activities that deprive them of food and water for extended periods of time, thus making them more likely to graze toxic plants. Grazing during the wrong season may compromise an animal's ability to select adequate and non-toxic forages (James, 1994).

The toxicity of plants varies with environmental factors such as site, temperature, precipitation, and light, time of day and stage of growth. For example, mature oak leaves are less toxic than young leaves. Cyanogenic plants such as arrow grass are more toxic following a frost or drought condition. Nitrates can be higher in plants following heavy nitrogen fertilisation or during a drought. Certain animal factors must also be considered in livestock poisoning by plants. For example, goats are considered to be comparatively resistant to lantana poisoning than cattle. A hungry animal is more susceptible to poisoning than a full one. A full rumen slows consumption and also dilutes the toxin. Though the animals are exposed to a large number of toxic plants when they are left for grazing, five will be discussed in detail in this chapter. These include lantana, ageratum, eupatorium, oak and ferns (James, 1994).

Introduction

Though, India is bestowed with large livestock population (512.05 million) to which cattle buffaloes, goats and sheep contribute 190.90, 108.70, 135.2 and 65.07 numbers in millions, respectively (DADF, 2018), but at the same time, facing with a great shortage of crop residues, greens and concentrates for animal sustainability (NIANP, 2013). The shortage of these conventional feeds and fodders tropical and sub-tropical regions has already been documented and well recognized (Maneerat et al., 2015). The feed and fodder resources are gradually decreasing throughout India owing to many factors like shrinkage of common property resources and shift towards the cultivation of commercial crops etc. (Biradar and Kumar, 2013). Based on feed production and feed requirement calculated as above, India falls short by 219.2 Mt of green fodder and 226.73 MT of dry fodder (Earagariyanna et al., 2017). India faces a green fodder shortage of 63.5 percent and a dry fodder shortage of 23.5 percent and if the current situation continues then India's green fodder shortage will reach 66 percent and dry fodder will reach 25 percent by 2030 (Jitendra, 2017). This scenario demands the utilization of alternate non-conventional feed resources to sustain and economize livestock farming. The issues can be addressed by those unconventional resources like agricultural wastes which are widely available at low or zero cost and too with minimal treatment may serve as potential nutritional feeding material for animals.

Introduction

Incidence of ectoparasitism is on rise in the livestock population, impeding its production and performance. Those areas which were free of ectoparasites are now under great parasite load because of changing climatic conditions and global warming. Global warming has resulted in vectors shifting their habitats to temperate regions also. Ectoparasites are not only causing irritation to livestock by blood sucking and associated pruritus, they are serving as vectors for a variety of haemoprotozoan and rickettsiae leading to far-flung complications. Major ectoparasites infesting ruminants are ticks, lice, fleas and flies. Though ticks and flies are proclaimed as notorious for transmission of haemoprotozoans, now a days evidences are on rise reporting the role of fleas and lice as vectors for various haemoprotozoan and viral diseases. The need of the hour is to explore more and more ectoparasites to identify their vector potential and their effective control measures. While addressing the ectoparasitism in livestock, another major problem arises with their control. Most ectoparasitism is of seasonal nature at least in temperate areas, while it is a round the year phenomenon in tropics. Only very few compounds are available as ectoparasiticides and used by clinicians, and has resulted in onset of resistance among ectoparasites. New compounds need to be developed and marketed to counter this and at the same time it should be environment friendly also. Lest their rising use can lead to eradication of friendly fauna which can be more detrimental to the ecosystem. Now a days researches are focusing on the development of integrated tick/vector control measures which are making use of minimal chemical compounds and utilizing the synergistic application of farming techniques/practices and cultivating plants of acaricidal properties. In this era of pandemic, zoonotic nature of various haemoprotozoan/rickettsiae affecting livestock is also of concern to the mankind. So, they need to be addressed at the earliest considering their impact. The susceptibility to ectoparasitism varies from animal to animal.

Introduction

Gastro-intestinal parasites are considered as the 'silent killers' and remain hidden or undiagnosed by the livestock owners or veterinarians as the infected animals manifest meagre clinical signs. These parasites often have detrimental effects on the growth and development of animals where they can potentiate mortality especially among young, weak or nutritionally compromised animals. They negatively impact animal health in terms of reduced weight gain, anorexia, digestive disturbance, impaired reproductive performance, condemnation of affected organs, mortality in infected animals and ultimately affect animal production, contributing to huge economic losses to the livestock owners. At present, chemotherapy is the most practical and widely practiced approach to curb these infestations. But frequent and indiscriminate use of anthelmintics imposes a threat on the sustainability of current control measures. Thus, there is an urgent need for incorporation of alternate control approaches while designing our worm control programs, so that we can reduce the usage of anthelmintics and prolong their effectiveness. The effectiveness or success of any worm control strategy is evaluated based on integrated parameters like the ultimate goal of increasing production, minimizing risks regarding drug resistance and considering consumer's concerns about health and environment-associated problems. In general, gastro-intestinal nematode control strategies can target either the parasite population inside the host or the free-living stages of parasites in the environment. Here, we are discussing some of the components of sustainable control measures for these parasites in detail.

Objective

1. To classify the various spices and condiments.

Types of classification: spices and condiments are classified on the following basis:

1. Classification on the basis of economic importance
2. Classification on the basis of parts used
3. Classification on the basis of climatic requirements
4. Classification on the basis of life cycle
5. Classification on the basis of taxonomy
6. Botanical classification

Objectives

1. To know the botanical and other names of spices and condiments.
2. To identify the family, plant habit and plant part used of spices and condiments.

Objective

To study the salient features of important varieties of spices and condiments.

1. Cardamom

Table 3.1: Released/Recommended Cardamom Selections- Estimated Yield and Source of Variability.

2. Black pepper

Table 3.2: Improved varieties of black pepper and their character

Objective

1. To know the morphology of different spices and condiments.

Materials: The crop of spices and condiments available at Horticulture research farm

Method of observation: Identification of various spices and condiments plants by carefully observing the root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seeds of the plants.

General

1. Habitat: A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of plant. The term typically refers to the zone in which the plant lives and where it can find food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction It is the natural home of a plant. Each habitat has its own particular type of climate like:
   1. Tropical Spices: These are grown at 1800 m - 3500 m height from ground level eg. clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, konkam, galangal, small cardamom, vanilla, black pepper, ginger, turmeric.
   2. Subtropical Spices: These are grown at 300 m - 900 m height from ground level eg. cumin, dill, fennel, coriander, fenugreek, onion, garlic
   3. Temperate Spices: These are grown at 900 m - 1800 m height from ground level eg. saffron, asafetida, caraway seed, celery seed, savoy, caper, balm, origanum, calamus, thyme etc.