eChapters

The term growth refers to an irreversible increase in size and weight of the plant. It normally reflects an increase in protoplasm, which may occur through increase in size of the cell and number of cells. Hence, the process of cell elongation and cell division provides the basis for growth. Cell division and enlargement are complicated processes involving synthesis of many organic compounds such as protein, cellulose and nucleic acid, besides the physical force required, which results in cell enlargement. The growth of the whole plant is compartmentalized into areas called ‘meristem’ where cell division and cell elongation are localized. The meristem cells such as shoot apex, root apex, cambium and the intercalary zones undergo repeated mitosis resulting in replication of DNA and nuclear material and finally the cell mass increases. Adjacent to this area of meristematic activity is the region of cell elongation, which phases in to the region of differentiation and maturation.

The increase in protoplasm (occurring in cell division and elongation) is brought about through a series of events in which water, carbon - di-oxide and inorganic salts are transformed into living materials. These events include (a) photosynthesis (production of carbohydrates) (b) nutrient absorption and translocation (uptake of water, nitrogen and other mineral elements) and (3) anabolism (synthesis of various materials produced in plant from the carbon fragments produced by photosynthesis and from the inorganic nutrients and water absorbed from the soil). The energy required for all these processes is provided by a catabolic process viz., respiration (degradation of sugars and fats to release energy). The net balance of anabolism and catabolism results in growth of the plant.

Micro propagation in also called as in vitro propagation. In vitro is a Latin word, meaning ‘in glass’. It refers to procedures done in controlled artificial environment, outside a living organism. These procedures naturally occur in the living system. Opposite to in vitro is in vivo which is also a Latin word, meaning ‘in living’. Biological processes that occur within the living system.

Micro propagation refers to the multiplication of plants, in aseptic conditions in containers under controlled nutritional and environmental condition. Micropropagation is done in artificial growth medium from various plant parts like meristem tip, embryos, anthers, axillary buds, leaf section, shootlips etc. It is a method by which a true to type and disease free plant can be regenerated from a miniature piece of plant throughout the year. Some popularly grown crops from tissue culture are as follows

Ornamental plants - orchids, lilium, gerbera, cordyline, begonia, ficus, etc.

This fruit plant is fast-growing when young, but soon become slow-growing tree thrive well under tropical, sub-tropical and temperate region. Mostly this crop is being cultivated for rearing of silkworm and wind break rather than fruit crop. This crop not specific with climatic requirement so can be grown in arid, marginal soil, barren land without much care.

The different plant parts viz., stem, bark, twigs, leaf, fruit etc are being utilized in different ways. Stem use for making agricultural implement, house artisans’, sports items, fodder for animals and fruits use as fresh dessert and in processing for making of different value added products like jam, beverages etc. Apart from these, its different plant parts also have medicinal properties use mainly in folk, ayurvedic and unani medicines.

Phalsa is an important minor fruit crop of India. It is a sub tropical fruits, which is also known as star apple. It is known by different vernacular names in different parts of country for example Dhamini in Bengali, Phalsa in Punjabi and Shurkhi in Hindi.

Phalsa is a shrub or small tree of Indian origin. Phalsa has been mentioned in Vedic literature as having certain medicinal qualities. Phalsa is a bushy plant of arid and semi- arid region. It is also cultivated in subtropical region. It is very hardy, tolerant to drought and suitable to grow on wastelands. Phalsa is best suited for small area as it is manageable by pruning. Its cultivation is favoured around big cities where fruits find a ready and quick sale. It has a poor keeping quality. It is also grown as an intercrop with mango, aonla, bael and ber. It is capable of growing under neglected and water scarcity conditions where only a few other crops would survive.

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus), commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barberton Daisy or African Daisy, belongs to the family Asteraceae is one of the most important cut flowers in domestic as well as global market. It ranks sixth among the top ten cut flowers. Gerbera can successfully be grown in the plains as well as in the hills. In India, its cultivation is confined mostly to Kalimpong, Bangalore and Pune. The flowers are known for long vase life (Chauhan, 2005) and good rehydration capacity suitable for long distant transportation. It is a diploid species with somatic chromosome number 50 (n=25).

Importance and Uses

Gerbera is very fashionable and widely used as a decorative garden flower and cut flower (Kanwar and Kumar, 2008). It is ideal for garden decoration as a bedding plant, pot plant and suitable for growing in rock gardens. It is also used in interior decoration in vases, flower arrangements and in bouquets.

Gerbera viridifolia is referred as ‘the herb of milk’ in the eastern Cape and is probably used to stimulate milk production in cattle (Dold and Cocks, 2002).

Botanically aster belongs to the family Asteraceae and scientifically known as Callistephus chinesnsis which is basically native to China aster and annual aster. It is native to China and Japan and it is cultivated worldwide as cut flower, loose flower, bedding plant, for flower decoration and for making floral ornaments. It can easily cultivate in the open fields and green houses for the production of cut-flowers. The genus Callistephus derives from two Greek words that is ‘Kalistos’ and ‘Stephos’ meaning ‘most beautiful’ and ‘a crown’, respectively. The name Aster comes from the Ancient Greek word acx^p (aster),, meaning “star”;, referring to the shape of the flower head (Janakiram, 2006).Among various flowering annuals, China aster is having an important position in Indian floriculture industry. It holds the position next to chrysanthemum and marigold among the traditional flowers. In fact, it has widely replaced an already grown annual Chrysanthemum up to greater extent in Indian floriculture industry.

This flower is most preferred for wide cultivation by virtue of its wide variation in attractive color and longer vase life. It is also very much used for beautification in landscape gardening which create mass effect. In India it is cultivated in about 1,020 ha with a production of flower 800 million tonnes. It is commercially cultivated in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra. In Karnataka it account for 6 % of the total area and 8.8 % of the total flower production.

Tuberose is an important half-hardy, perennial bulbous flowering plant. It belongs to the Amaryllidaceae family and having basic chromosome number (n=30). It is one of the important cut flower among the top ten cut flowers due to its beauty, elegance and sweet pleasant fragrance (Sadhu and Bose, 1973). It is cultivated for its long lasting spike as cut flower as well as loose flower purpose. Tuberose also known as Rajanigandha in Bengali, Gulchari and Galshabbo in Hindi, Sukandaraji and Nelasanpengi in Telegu, Nilasompangi in Tamil and Sugandharaja in Kannada. It is suitable under protected cultivation as well as open field condition (Brundell and Steenstra 1985). It has a huge economic potential and more demand for cut-flower purpose (Usman, 2013) and essential oil industry (Singh, 1995). Due to its immense export potential, cultivation of tuberose is gaining momentum day by day in our country.

Origin and distribution

Tuberose is cultivated all over the world and it is originated from Mexico. Tuberose is commercially producing in various countries such as India, China, Bangladesh, Mexico, Kenya, Italy, France, Morocco, USA, Hawaii and South Africa. In India, it is commercial growing in West Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and North Eastern part of India. At present scenery tuberose is cultivation in India 7. 95 lakh hectare and cut flowers is estimated to be 27.71 ‘000 MT and loose flowers1560.70 lakh (Anonymous, 2013).

Statice, botanically known as Limoniumis very highly demanded ornamental plant. It is also known as ‘Sea Lavender’ owing to its color and place of growth. The genus name Limonium is from Greek name ‘leimon’ which translates to origin ‘a meadow’, most suitable as many species are found growing near marshy lands or salty areas of sea shore. The statice plants have very wide adaptability and can be seen growing under a wide range soil and climatic conditions like sea shores, marshy lands, deserts and plains etc. Statice figures in top 20 cut flowers sold worldwide but information on its trade, volume, export-import and number of stems sold etc. is not available. The reason for this may be attributed to classification systems, data collection categories and frequently changing nature of the assortments in the international flower market. Comprehensive trade statistics are difficult to locate for Statice. However, Statice figured in top 10 imported products in the Netherlands way back during 2013, 2014 and 2015. Though it is presently not among the top 10 flowers category, still it enjoys the immense popularity among the growers owing to its ease in cultivation and other characteristics. It is cultivated as annual as well as perennial crop, as different species have been domesticated for this purpose.

All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on vegetable crops (VC) was started during the IV five-year plan in 1970-71, to provide a national grid for multi-location testing of the vegetable technologies developed by various research institutes and state agricultural universities. The headquarter of the project was at the Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi and the first Project Coordinator (Vegetable Crops) joined the project in July 1971. During 1986, level of the project was elevated to the Project Directorate. Further, in a significant development during 1992, headquarter of the directorate was shifted from IARI, New Delhi to the present day Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR) at Varanasi. In a significant development, in eleventh five-year plan the National Seed Project (Vegetables) was merged with AICRP (VC).

Presently the AICRP Vegetable Crops is a network of 36 regular and 18 voluntary centres. The network is headed by the Project Coordinator and it’s headquarter functions from IIVR (Indian Institute of Vegetable Research), Varanasi, main campus. The AICRP centers are located in different agro-climatic zones of the country. The centers in the network include ICAR institutes, central institutes, state agricultural and traditional universities and a few other public and private research organizations.

The climate, the past weather event that existed over larger region and covering long years of more than 30 years is very important for the emergence and successful sustenance of an organism including human kind. Normally scientists talk about environment and this includes not only the soils but also the climate of the particular region. Based on this, during 1989, the Planning Commission of India divided the entire India in to 15 agro-climatic zones based on physiography and climate. This division is only for planning purposes. Subsequently under NARP, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi in consultation with the Planning Commission, requested all State Agricultural Universities (SAU) to divide their State in to different sub climatic zones considering soils, temperature and other weather parameters preciously with in the major agroclimatic zone of India in which the concerned State falls. Accordingly, each SAU has divided their State into different agro-climatic sub-zones and this resulted in 129 agro-climatic sub zones in India and limited to 127 and these all fall within 15 agro climatic zones of India as done by the Planning Commission of India.

The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP), Nagpur not satisfied with this division, considering soils, temperature, rainfall, vegetation and all factors responsible for ecosystem (bio-climate, length of growing period, moisture index) divided the whole India in to 20 agro-eco regions by 1992 and revised preciously again by 2015 (Mandal et al., 2016) and the revised approach is being considered as scientific tool and taken for micro-level planning in India now and those are discussed at this chapter.

Laboratory analysis is an important part in any branch of chemistry and analytical chemistry in particular. To undertake the analysis, both apparatus and equipments are needed.

I. Filtration

Filtration is a process of separation of precipitate from solution. Filtration is used to remove impurities from a solution (or) to isolate a solid.

Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that may or may not be radioactive,but if radioactive, have half-lives too long to be measured. These isotopes decay into stable products. Eg. ¹⁴C having 6protons and electrons with 8 neutrons.

Most elements of biological interest (including C, H, O, N, and S) have two or more stable isotopes. Among the stable isotopes, the most useful as biological tracers are the heavy isotopes of carbon and nitrogen.

Aim

To design shallow and deep bins

Theory

The structure behaves as a deep or shallow bin depending upon its relative dimensions such as depth and diameter or width. It is decided from the concept of the plane of rupture.

Plane of rupture: The plane of rupture is that surface down which a wedge of material bounded by one wall face, the free surface, and the plane of rupture would start sliding if bounding wall were to move.

Aim

To design the grassed water ways or open channel

Geometric characteristics of different waterways

The shape of open channel is dependent upon the field conditions and types of the construction equipments used.

The common shapes of open channels generally used are (i) Parabolic or semi circular (ii) Triangular (iii) Rectangular and (iv) Trapezoidal section.

The parabolic shape approximates a natural channel. The reason is that in natural course of channel flow, the trapezoidal and triangular sections tend to become in parabolic shape due to deposition of sediments and bank erosion.

Aim

• To design the contour bunds

Design parameters

The design of contour bund includes determination of following parameters:

• Choice of bund
• Spacing of bunds
• Size of bund
• Alignment of bund

1. Choice of bund

The choice of bund should be selected weather the contour bund or graded bund depends on the annual rainfall, soil condition and types of outlets used.

Aim

To estimate the soil loss using universal soil loss equation

Universal soil loss equation

Wischmeir and Smith (1962) has been developed a predictive equation for estimating the soil loss taking into account following factors: Climatic characteristics, soil characteristics, crop management and conservation practices. It is called Universal soil-loss equation (USLE).

Introduction

The mango (Mangifera indica L.) is regarded as king of fruits. It is a key fruit crop in the subtropical regions of world including India. Prakash and Srivastava, 1987 reported that mango is attacked by more than 140 fungi (70 diseases), about 12 nematodes and a dozen of phanerogamic parasites and epiphytes. Among these diseases some major diseases of mango having economic important in India are briefly described in this chapter.

Anthracnose

Anthracnose is a severe disease of mango. High disease severity results to heavy loss including post-harvest losses during transit and marketing of produce. Mango anthracnose has been reported to spoil about 29 per cent of Alphanso fruits at Bangalore. Young plantations of Bombay green variety are completely wiped out in Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh as a result of severe wither tip Bose et al., 1973. At Lucknow, 24 per cent loss of fruits of Dashehari variety has been reported by Raoof and Prakash, 1984.

Introduction

Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson) is an important edible tropical tuber crop since time immemorial in the tropics and sub-tropics (Behera et al., 2009) and regarded as “King of tuber crops” due to its higher biological efficiency as a food producer ). It belongs to the family Araceae. Tender stem and leaves of this tuber crop are used for vegetable purpose. The corms are rich in nutrition and contain 18.0% starch, 1-5% protein and up to 2% fat. Leaves contain 2-3% protein, 3% carbohydrates and 4-7 % crude fibre. It has great scope for commercial exploitation as a medicinal crop in pharmacological industry and widely recommended as a remedy in all three of the major Indian medicinal systems: Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani. The corm is prescribed for bronchitis, asthma, abdominal pain, emesis, dysentery, enlargement of spleen, piles, elephantiasis, diseases due to vitiated blood, and rheumatic swellings. Pharmacological studies have shown a variety of effects, specifically antiprotease activity, analgesic activity, and cytotoxic activity. It has also been found to be a potential inhibitor of bacteria activity when used with antibiotics. In addition, Amorphophallus corm is a good sources of phyto- aestrogens and are effective alternate or complementary to conventional hormone replacement therapy for symptoms associated with menopause and chronic degenerative diseases in women. It is a crop of South-east Asian origin, and grown widely in Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and South eastern Asian countries. In India, the crop is popular in the state of West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. West Bengal is the highest producer of elephant foot yam (293.84 thousand MT in the year 2015-16) followed by Andhra Pradesh (207.52 thousand MT) and Kerala (110.37 thousand MT) (Source: National Horticultural Board). However, the crop is gaining popularity dueto its shade tolerance, easiness in cultivation, high productivity, less incidence of pests and diseases, steady demand and reasonably good price.

Introduction

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, also known as taro, belongs to the family Arecaceae. Taro is believed to have originated in Southern or South-East Asia, and to have been dispersed to Oceania through the Island of New Guinea to many centuries ago but cultivated in Asia for more than 10,000 years. Taro is considered as an important vegetable grown throughout India. Taro is herbaceous perennial plants with a large corm on or just below the ground surface and can be grown in the ground or in large containers. They can be grown in almost any temperate zone as long as the summer is warm.

Taro root contains very significant amount of dietary fibre and carbohydrates, as well as high levels of vitamin A, C, E, B6 and folate, as well as magnesium, iron, zinc, phosphorus, potassium, manganese and copper. Thogh negligible, the plant is also known to provide some protein in our diet. As Taro is a great source of fibre and other nutrients, it offers a variety of potential health benefits, including improved blood sugar management, gut and heart health.

Globally, taro is grown in an area of 1.6 m ha producing 11.66 mt with an average productivity of 7.25 t ha^-1 (FAO, 2009). The plant can be grown in wide range of climatic condition but during growth period taro is prone to attack by at least twenty- three (23) pathogens, of which, only a few causes serious reduction in the potential yield of the crop. Some of the mentionable diseases that commonly occurs and causes yield loss of the plants are as follows:

Aquaculture or farming and husbandry of aquatic organisms and plants is the future for increasing aquatic food production. It is the fastest growing food production sector with an annual average growth of >6% in the last two decades. It increased from <1 million tonne in 1950 to 70.2 million tonnes in 2013. An update of aquaculture production (FAO) revealed that the total world aquaculture production continued to grow in 2013, reaching 97.2 million tonnes (live weight) with an estimated value of US$157 billion. A total of 575 aquatic species and species groups are grown in freshwater, seawater and brackish water have been registered in the FAO Global Aquaculture Production Statistics Database. The production of farmed food fish (finfish, crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic animals) was 70.2 million tonnes in 2013, up by 5.6 % from 66.5 million tonnes in 2012. The production of 27 million tonnes of farmed aquatic plants was a 13.4% jump on the 23.8 million tonnes of 2012. The contribution of aquaculture to the world total fish production reached 43.1%, up from 42.1% in 2012. It was only 30.6% a decade ago in 2003. Meanwhile, world production of aquatic plants, mostly seaweeds, is still overwhelmingly dominated by aquaculture (95.5% in 2013). On a global scale, the production of major non-fed species contributed 30.7% to world food fish aquaculture production in 2013, including 13.9 million tonnes of bivalves and 7.7 million tonnes of filter-feeding carps.

Mariculture involves the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in an enclosed section of the sea (cages/pens), or in tanks, recirculating systems, ponds or raceways in seawater..It is a promising sector by which the additional marine fish requirement can be met in the future years. It is also the fastest growing sub-sector of aquaculture. At global level, mariculture produces many high valued finfishes, crustaceans and molluscs viz. oysters, mussels, clams, cockles and scallops. In 2013 mariculture has contributed around 25.5 million tonnes of foodfish globally which formed about 36.3 %of the foodfish aquaculture production(World food fish aquaculture production was 70.2 million tonnes in 2013). Molluscs dominated the global mariculture production (59.7%) followed by finfish (22.7%), crustaceans (16.2%) and others (1.4%). In addition about 26.9 million tonnes of macro algae were also produced by mariculture. The total mariculture production including seaweeds was 52.4 million tonnes in 2013 which constituted 53.9% of the total aquaculture production (The total global aquaculture production including the aquatic plants was 97.2 million tonnes in 2013).

Food processing involves the transformation of raw materials into consumer-ready products, with the objective of stabilizing them to prevent negative changes in quality and ensure food safety. To consumers, the most important attributes of a food product are its sensory characteristics like texture, flavour, aroma, shape and colour. The aim of food manufacturers is to develop and employ processing technologies that retain or create desirable sensory qualities or reduce undesirable changes which take place during processing. Alternative or novel food processing technologies are being explored and implemented to provide safe, fresher-tasting, nutritive foods without the use of heat or chemical preservatives. The major non thermal technologies gaining importance are High-pressure processing, Pulsed light technology, Pulsed electric field, Irradiation etc.

High pressure processing

The application of very high pressures (upto 87,000 psi, 6000 bar or 600 MPa) for preservation of food substances in combination with or without heat is known as high pressure processing (HPP). This process is also known as high hydrostatic pressure processing (HHP) or ultra-high pressure processing (UHP). When compared to thermal processing, pressure treated foods have a fresher taste, better appearance, texture and nutritional value. High pressure processing can be conducted at ambient or refrigerated temperatures, thereby eliminating thermal effects and cooked off-flavors. The technology is highly beneficial for heat sensitive products. The first high pressure processing line was introduced in Japan for jam manufacture in 1990’s and has since been upgraded to several food products. A number of HPP products have been commercialized in North America, Europe and in China. Machines are now available with operating pressures in the range 400-700 MPa and capacities ranging up to 900 kg per batch. Since HP processing affect mainly the non-covalent bonds of the food, the quality characteristics of foods such as color, flavor and nutrients generally remain unaffected (Knorr, 1993).

There is ever increase in the demand for good quality food product with improved quality and shelf life. Over the years, packaging have brought out a revolution in the marketing and distribution of food products including fish. Among the food categories, seafood ranks 3^rd with respect to consumption which explains the importance of fish. Fish is a vital source of food for people. It is the most important single source of high-quality protein, providing approximately 16% of the animal protein consumed by the world’s population (Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), United Nations, 1997). By any measure, fishes are amoung the world’s most important natural resources. Annual exploitation from wild populations exceeds 90 million tones, and total annual trade exceeds $ US 55 billion. Additionally, with over 25000 known species, the biodiversity and ecological roles of fish are being increasingly recognized in aquatic conservation, ecosystem management, restoration and aquatic environmental regulation.

Like any other food commodities, fish is one of the highly perishable items which undergoes spoilage if sufficient care is not taken. Various preservation methods have been in place to overcome the spoilage of fish. Chilling and refrigeration is the most preferred preservation method as it helps in preserving fresh like quality. Chilling or icing is reducing the temperature of fish so as to prolong the lag phase of bacteria and helps in reducing the spoilage rate. Fish being one of the most perishable foods, its freshness is rapidly lost even when stored under chilled conditions. Further, consumers demands to have fish in as fresh a state as possible so that the characteristics flavours are retained. Bulk transportation of fresh fish in ice has several limitations like limited extension of shelf life, unnecessary expenditure on freight due to ice, difficulty in handling and maintaining hygienic conditions due to leaching of ice melt water with leaching losses of soluble nutrients and flavouring compounds. Proper packaging will help in improving the keeping quality of fish. Packaging is an important aspect for improving the shelf life and marketability. Packaging enhances the consumer acceptability and hence saleability of the product. Traditionally, food packaging is meant for protection, communication, convenience and containment. The package is used to protect the product from the deteriorative effects of the external environmental conditionals like heat, light, presence or absence of moisture, pressure, microorganisms, and gaseous emissions and so on. Packaging is an integral part of the food processing and plays an important role in preventing or reducing the generation of waste in the supply of food. Packaging assists the preservation of the world’s resources through the prevention of product spoilage and wastage, and by protecting products until they have performed their function. Basic requirements of a package are good marketing properties, reasonable price, technical feasibility, utility for food contact, low environmental stress, and suitability for recycling. Simply packing fish is suitable packaging material will enhance the shelf life of chilled and refrigerated fish to 7 to 15 days depending on fish species. However, in the normal packaging the spoilage process will be accelerated due to presence of O₂ in the normal air packing. Alteration in the package atmosphere will help in overcoming the problem of shelf life, which can be achieved by vacuum packaging or modified atmosphere packaging.

Introduction

Fish symbolizes as prosperity and fertility of the region rather than for its food and nutritional security in many parts of the world. The abundant inland waters resources such as reservoirs, rivers and wetlands contribute to meet the food and nutritional security of a nation. The rich diversity of freshwater fish fauna supplements as a quality animal source protein, macro and micro nutrients for the health benefits of all age group of human population. Hence, the fishery activities such as fish catch and production enhancement from inland water resources are emphasized to scale up to meet the growing demand. The world fish production through inland capture fisheries has increased from 10.5 million tons in 2009 to 11.9 tons in 2014. The utilization of the existing vast inland resources through technical interventions would impact on food and nutritional security and livelihood of the fishers and rural masses of the developing countries.

The livelihood of millions of people depends on shrimp farming around the world, especially in tropical and sub-tropical developing countries. On the other hand, failure to protect the ecosystem and environment from degradation due to shrimp farming is a major concern. The long-term sustainability of this industry depends on its ability to be economically efficient, and at the same time to minimize environmental effects. Therefore, it is important to consider both the economic outcomes and various environmental effects in achieving a more sustainable industry. From this viewpoint, an attempt has been made to explore the key environmental aspects of shrimp farming in the world in general, and in Dhamara area in particular.

Impacts of shrimp farming are mainly in four areas, namely, land resources, water resources, forest resources and fishery resources.

Introduction

The total Livestock population is 535.78 million in the country showing an increase of 4.6 % over Livestock census-2012. Total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) is 302.79 million in 2019 which shows an increase of above 1% over the previous census. The total number of cattle in the country in 2019 is 192.49 million showing an increase of 0.8% over the previous census. The female cattle (Cow population) is 145.12 million, increased by 18 % over the previous census (2012). The exotic/cross bred population in India is 50.42 million. Indigenous /non destript female population has increased by 10% in 2019 as compared to previous census. The population of the total exotic/ crossbred cattle has increased by 26.9% as compared to previous census. However, the pace of decline of indigenous/non-descript cattle population during 2012-2019 is much lesser than as compared to the 2007-12 which was about 9%. The buffalo in the country is 109.85 million showing an increase of 6.0% over the previous census. The sheep population in the country is 74.26 million in 2019, increased by 14.1% over the previous census. The goat population in the country in 2019 is 148.88 million showing an increase of 10.1 % over the previous census. The total pigs in the country is 9.06 million in the country census, decline by 12.03% over the previous census. The other livestock including Mithun, Yak, Horses, Ponies, Mule, Donkeys, Camel together contribute around 0.23% of the total livestock and their total count is 1.24 million.

Introduction

Buffaloes thrive best in the areas of moderate rainfall as they require plenty of water for their daily bath. They live on coarser grass and even then are heavy yielders of milk. Buffalo species is thought to have originated in India. Indian buffaloes are the descendant of Bos arni found in north-eastern parts of India, especially in Assam & surrounding areas. There are two main types of buffaloes in India: River and Swamp types. However, both are called Bubalus bubalis. Most of the buffaloes in India are river types, though swamp varieties are also found in certain parts of the country, especially in eastern parts. Buffalo is our main milch producing species, that’s why the contribution of buffaloes to the total milk production is larger than that of cattle. India is the home tract of some of the best buffalo breeds.

Introduction

Ducks are domesticated before 3000-4500 years. Ancestor of domestic ducks is wild mallard duck (Anas boschos) which are broody. Scientific name of domestic duck is Anas platyrhyncos. Duck farming is the part of poultry farming system. Duck can be raised for meat and eggs. In most part of the world, duck ranks next to the chicken in terms of egg and meat production. Commercial duck farming is increasing as this business has good potential to earn money through egg production. Duck can be feed on agro-industrial waste, swamp and marshy areas. These hardy birds can survive in such as areas where no other agricultural crops could be grown and other livestock raised. Duck farming business is a very profitable business as there are many duck breeds available all over the world. For commercial duck egg production and breeding, must go through water sources for raising ducks. It will reduce cost of feed. Duck can survive without water; but they need water pond kind things for fertile egg laying and mating. If pond is available then it is well and good for commercial duck farming. Chromosome number of duck is 80. Duck sound is whimpering or betch, honk. Incubation period of duck egg is 28 days. Egg weight duck is 72 gm.

There is a lot of confusion and lack of understanding when it comes to scheduling of fertigation. Even crop specialists prepare a fertigation dosage by dividing the total fertilizer quantity by the number of days of crop growth. This is highly erroneous. A scientifically prepared fertigation plan allows coordination of nutrient supply with changing demands of the growing crops which changes with the physiological shifts in the crop. Fertigation planner requires following information to prepare this schedule- which, when and how much plan:

A seed consists of a plant embryo, stored food material surrounded by a seed coat. Seeds of cereals and grasses consist of embryo or germ, endosperm and the pericarp.

Seeds of legumes contain no endosperm, the bulk of the seed being made up of the two cotyledons. The cotyledons constitute the food storage portion.

The embryo of the grass seed is made of epicotyl, hypocotyl and scutellum- the single cotyledon of monocots, the epicotyl gives rise to the shoot and the hypocotyl produces the roots.

Manures are the plant and animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients. They release nutrients upon their decomposition.

Bulky organic manures contain small percentage of nutrients and they are applied in large quantities. e.g,. farmyard manure, compost, green manures.

Weeds are the plants growing where and when they are not desired. They compete with crops for soil moisture, nutrients, solar radiation and space, and thus reduce crop yields. Weeds also act as alternate hosts that harbour insect pests and diseases and other microorganisms. Some weeds release poisonous substances into the soil which may be harmful to crop plants, human and livestock. Weeds reduce the quality of marketable produce and render harvesting difficult, leading to increased expenditure on labours, equipment and chemicals for their removal.

Classification of weeds

A. Based on life cycle

Annuals-Complete their life cycle in a year or in a single growing season. Based on the season they may be summer annuals and winter annuals.
Summer annual e.g, Echinochloa crusgalli

Pickles known to be good appetizers, aid digestion and pallate are edible products preserved and flavoured in a solution of common salt and vinegar. Spices and oil may also be added. There are a number of pickles very popular in India i.e. mango pickle, cauliflower pickle, lime and lemon pickles, ginger chilli pickle etc. But, some pickles like Sauerkraut are not very common in India but are very popular in European countries.

Canning : Process of preservation of various food stuffs including fruits and vegetables whole or in pieces, in sugar syrup or brine by heat processing them in hermetically sealed containers.

Climatic classification is the method of identifying climatologically homogenous regions. The systematic study of climate and its analysis and processing, which is referred as climatology plays an important role in national weather, planning activities and decision making in human activities. Iso climatic regions are those regions which have same climatic conditions.

Specific objectives of climatic classification

To identify the climates for transfer of production technology developed at particular center.

To provide adequate indices of moisture availability for successful crop production in drylands.

To quantify the risk levels associated with production constrains to agriculture production.

CALCIUM

Calcium is important in imparting structure and permeability to cell membrane. Deficiency produces general breakdown of membrane structure. Calcium enhances the uptake of NO₃ ^– N and interrelated with NO₃ ^– metabolism. It regulates cation uptake, required for cell elongation and cell division. Deficiency causes failure of terminal buds and apical tips of roots to develop. Blossom end rot of tomato, bitter pit of apples are due to calcium deficiency. Calcium is beneficial in imparting good soil structure.

It is immobile in plant. Very little translocation of calcium in the phloem is observed. Hence there is poor supply of calcium to fruits and storage organs. Downward translocation of calcium is also limited. Hence roots fail to enter the low calcium soils.

Biofertilizers act as complementary and supplementary sources of plant nutrients. Biofertilizers help in increasing the biologically fixed atmospheric nitrogen and enhancing phosphorus availability to the crops. Among the biofertilizers for increasing nitrogen supply, nitrogen fixing bacteria (Rhizobium, Azotobacter and Azospirillum), blue green algae (BGA) and Azolla are important. The availability of phosphorus is improved by phosphorus solublizing microorganisms (PSM) and mycorrhizae (VAM).

Rhizobium is of vital importance to various pulses and some of the oilseeds and fodder legumes as 80–90 per cent of their nitrogen requirement is met through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Rhizobium fixes atmospheric nitrogen ranging from 50–60 kg per ha in groundnut, 100–300 kg per ha in alfalfa. In pulses it is estimated at 50–110 kg/per ha. Field studies indicated a yield increase of 14–53 per cent due to Rhizobium inoculation. Nitrogen left over the demand of legumes in combination with the nitrogen present in roots of the legumes will enhance the soil fertility. Consequently the nutrient needs of the subsequent crop from applications will be reduced.

Soil represents a medium or substrate in which numerous microorganisms live and bring about a great variety of processes that are responsible for the continuation of the cycle of life in nature. The numerous living forms which spend their life in the soil, ranging from submicroscopic forms to the lower animal forms. With the growing recognition of the numerous processes carried out by the microorganisms in the soil there gradually emerged a branch of microbiology, which came to known as soil microbiology. It is a branch of soil science concerned with soil-inhabiting microorganisms and their functions and activities.

Since soil microbiology concerns soil microorganisms and their processes it is closely associated with soil biochemistry. Medical bacteriologists are interested in the soil as a medium for the growth and survival of disease-producing organisms. Agricultural chemists are also interested in the soil processes that result from the activities of microorganisms. General bacteriologists, zoologists, botanists are interested in a certain special group of organisms found in the soil. Recently, soil microbiology has expanded to include the study of the role of soil microorganisms in genetic engineering, in the biological control of pests and diseases, the degradation of pollutants, production and destruction of radioactive gases and its transfer. Thus microbial participation in several important processes emphasizes that soil microbiology has become a global science.

History of Soil Microbiology

There is enough evidence in the literature to believe that microorganisms were the earliest of the living things that existed on this planet. Man depends on crop plants for his existence and crop plants in turn depend on soil and soil microorganisms for their nutrition. Scientists from the beginning studied the microorganisms from water, air, soil, etc. and recognized the role of microorganisms in natural processes and realized the importance of soil microorganisms in the growth and development of plants.Thus, microorganisms have been playing a significant role long before they were discovered by man. Today, the soil is considered to be the main source of scavenging the organic wastes through microbial action and is also a rich storehouse for industrial microflora of great economic importance.

Unlike soil science whose origin can be traced back to Roman and Aryan times, soil microbiology emerges as a distinct branch of soil science during the first half of the 19^th century. Some of the notable contributions made by several scientists in the field of soil microbiology are highlighted in the following paragraphs.

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1673) discovered and described microorganisms through his own made first simple microscope with a magnification of 200 to 300 times. He observed minute, moving objects which he called “animalcules” (small animals) which are now known as protozoa, fungi, and bacteria. He for the first time made the authentic drawings of microorganisms (protozoa, bacteria, fungi).

Bioconversion refers to the recycling and reprocessing of organic waste materials using the system of biological decomposition or biodegradation into value added products. Composting is one way of conversion of organic waste into manures. It is defined as a method of solid waste management whereby the organic component of the solid waste stream is biologically decomposed under controlled conditions to a state in which it can be handled, stored or applied to the land without adversely affecting the environment.

Composting provides a partial solution to an issue of great concern in many communities. All around the world, landfills are filling up, garbage incineration is becoming increasingly unpopular, and other waste disposal options are becoming ever harder to find. Composting provides a way not only of reducing the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of, but also of converting it into a product that is useful for agriculture. Composting reduces waste, makes us less dependent on landfills, and decreases greenhouse gas emissions. Composting recycles essential nutrients back into the soil and promotes a prolific soil ecosystem.

Pesticides are the chemical substances that kill pests and herbicides are the chemicals that kill weeds. In the context of soil, pests are fungi, bacteria, insects, worms, and nematodes etc. that cause damage to field crops. Thus, in broad sense pesticides are insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, herbicides and nematicides that are used to control or inhibit plant diseases and insect pests. Although wide-scale application of pesticides and herbicides is an essential part of augmenting crop yields; excessive use of these chemicals leads to the microbial imbalance, environmental pollution and health hazards. An ideal pesticide should have the ability to destroy target pest quickly and should be able to degrade nontoxic substances as quickly as possible.

The ultimate “sink” of the pesticides applied in agriculture is soil. Soil being the storehouse of multitudes of microbes, in quantity and quality, receives the chemicals in various forms and acts as a scavenger of harmful substances. The efficiency and the competence to handle the chemicals vary with the soil and its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.

For many soil borne diseases, effective and economic control methods are not available. Several soil borne pathogens have developed resistance to many fungicides. The beneficial microbes are also affected by fungicides. Many fungicides pose health hazards by polluting food and water and cause direct toxicity of heavy metals and carcinogenic risk. In the context of growing worldwide awareness of environmental pollution and development of fungicide resistant strains of pathogens, biological method of suppression of disease causing organisms have been recognized as the safest approach for plant disease management.

Biological control of plant diseases is the suppression of populations of plant pathogens by living organisms. Amongst beneficial microorganisms, isolates can be selected which are highly effective against pathogens and can be multiplied on artificial media. Application of such selected and mass produced antagonists in high densities once or several times during a growing season is called “augmentative biological control”.

A white to light brown powder, is a heteropolysaccharide derived from the cell wall of higher terrestrial plants. It is mainly used in food as a gelling agent in jams and jellies. Today it is also used in fillings, sweets, as a stabiliser in fruit juices and milk drinks and as a source of dietary fiber in foods. Pectin is a heterogeneous grouping of acidic structural polysaccharides, found in fruit and vegetables and mainly prepared from ‘waste’ citrus peel and apple pomace. Pectin has a complex structure. Preparations consist of sub-structural entities that depend on their source and extraction methodology. Commercial extraction causes extensive degradation of the neutral sugar-containing side chains.

Pectin was first isolated and described in 1825 by Henri Braconnot, though the action of pectin to make jams and marmalades was known long before. To obtain well set jams from fruits that had little or only poor quality pectin, pectin-rich fruits or their extracts were mixed into the recipe. During industrialization, the makers of fruit preserves soon turned to producers of apple juice to obtain dried apple pomace that was then cooked to extract pectin. Later, in the 1920s and 1930s, factories were built that commercially extracted pectin from dried apple-pomace and later citrus-peel in regions that produced apple juice in both the USA and in Europe. At first pectin was sold as a liquid extract, but nowadays pectin is often used as dried powder that is easier to store and handle than a liquid

Fruit and vegetables play an important role in human nutrition. They are vital source of essential minerals, vitamins and dietary fibre and supply complex carbohydrate and protein. They are good source of calcium, phosphorus, iron and magnesium and contribute over 90% of dietary vitamin C. Green and yellow fruits and vegetables are a rich source of vitamin A (β-carotene). Thiamine, niacin and folic acid, which are required for normal functioning of the human body, are also present in significant qualities. Fruit is an important food in diet designed to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease in developed countries. It is not surprising, then, that certain fruit components exert pharmacological or therapeutic effect. The antioxidant properties of β -carotene may also a role in prevention of some forms of cancers. Packing and handling systems have been developed to move the product from farm to consumer expeditiously in order to minimize quality degradation. Food irradiation is a physical process like drying, freezing, thermal processing (canning and pasteurization) that can be used to disinfest, sterile and preserve food. The use of chemical preservatives to inhibit the growth of spoilage bacteria in modern food system has been recognized as deterrent to health. The present day, customer demands food products with no chemical preservatives, free from additives, natural with assured safety and better long shelf life.

The deterioration in foods during storage may include loses in organoleptic desirability, nutritional value, safety and aesthetic appeal. Food is subjected to physical, chemical and biological deterioration. Heat, cold, light, humidity, other radiation, gas composition, moisture, dryness, natural food enzymes, micro and macro organism, and industrial contaminants are adversely affect the food quality and their shelf life. The practice of drying, curing and fermentation are among the conventional methods of preservation used for thousand years.

Packaging is essential for the safe and easy marketing of any food products and for the retention of their natural characteristics till consumed or utilized otherwise. Packaging is also an essential part of processing and distribution of foods. Packaging used for processed foods can contribute marketing to the retention of the quality characteristics. It must protect a variety of assaults including physical damage, chemical attack and contamination from biological vectors including microorganisms, insects and rodents. Environmental factors such as oxygen and water vapour will spoil foods if they are allowed to enter packages freely. Contamination of foods by microorganism can spoil foods or cause life-threatening diseases. With dehydrated food, packaging serves a multi protection role. Depending on the product being packed, packaging has to provide protection against moisture pick up, loss of volatile components, oxidation and damage of product itself. With the development of food industries, use of different types of plastic containers becomes widely popular owing to its several advantages.

Although packaging has, in recent years, been accused of using up valuable resources, it is nevertheless absolutely essential. Packaging is vital to protect and conserve the items contained within it. The dominant purpose of packaging is to protect the product so that it reaches the consumer in the same condition as when it was first made. However there is a lot more to the effectiveness and usefulness of packaging than just protection. When a consumer picks up their carton of freshly squeezed mango juice, they are not aware of the energy and money saved by the packaging they are grasping in their hands. In order to fully understand the essential role packaging plays in every day life, it is necessary to understand the guiding principles behind it.

The word nutrition first appeared in 1551 and comes from the Latin word nutrire, meaning “to nourish.” Today, we define nutrition as the sum of all processes involved in how organisms obtain nutrients, metabolize them, and use them to support all of life’s processes. Nutritional science is the investigation of how an organism is nourished, and incorporates the study of how nourishment affects personal health, population health, and planetary health. Nutritional science covers a wide spectrum of disciplines. As a result, nutritional scientists can specialize in particular aspects of nutrition such as biology, physiology, immunology, biochemistry, education, psychology, sustainability, and sociology.

Disease is defined as any abnormal condition affecting the health of an organism, and is characterized by specific signs and symptoms. Signs refer to identifying characteristics of a disease such as swelling, weight loss, or fever. Symptoms are the features of a disease recognized by a patient and/or their doctor. Symptoms can include nausea, fatigue, irritability, and pain. Diseases are broadly categorized as resulting from pathogens (i.e., bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites), deficiencies, genetics, and physiological dysfunction. Diseases that primarily affect physical health are those that impair body structure (as is the case with osteoporosis), or functioning (as is the case with cardiovascular disease). Mental illnesses primarily affect mental and social well-being.

The foods we eat contain nutrients. Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Nutrients must be obtained from diet, since the human body does not synthesize them. Nutrients are used to produce energy, detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce. There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall health. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Foods also contain non-nutrients that may be harmful (such as cholesterol, dyes, and preservatives) or beneficial (such as antioxidants).

Urban forestry is not a new concept, but it is one which appears to have growing potential. With increasing urbanization in the 20th century, the incorporation of trees into urban settlements has also increased. The management of all trees within the urban area is considered a distinct discipline of forestry. Urban forestry was conceptualized in the late 1960s in North America, and grew out of what was initially termed environmental forestry. Trees and urban forests can make our cities cleaner, cooler, greener, safer, healthier, happier and nice places to live.

In agroforestry systems the various components like tree, crop and pasture exist in different proportions and orientations. It is difficult to find out which agroforestry system is the best suited for a given land situation. Similarly, it is to be decided which technologies are required for refinement and improvement of the existing agroforestry practices. But without sufficient knowledge of the existing system in a particular land situation, it is very difficult to set the research priorities for modification and development of this system.

Diagnosis and Design (D & D) is a systematic and objective methodology developed by International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) to initiate, monitor and evaluate agroforestry programmes. D & D is based on the philosophy that knowledge of the existing situation (diagnosis) is essential to plan and evaluate (design) meaningful and effective programmes in agroforestry research for development. The methodology plays a strategic role in all the phases of the agroforestry research process. D & D in agroforestry is unique and it has been specially developed for the following purposes.

Agroforestry systems are more complex than the agricultural systems. The long-term nature of trials involving woody species and the varying objectives of agroforestry trials demand that adequate caution be exercised in their design. Several characteristics of the trees like slow growth, long-term effects on their surroundings, long life, age of trees, the area over which the influence of trees extend, etc. complicate the issue of designing experiments for these systems. Agroforestry experiments are often established on marginal sites which include sloping lands, and sites with infertile and degraded soils. It is thus difficult to find homogeneous sites of such problem areas, especially sloping lands where plots along contour lines are long and linear. Germplasm of many agroforestry tree species are usually collected from different origins which lack uniformity. Therefore, experimental materials in an agroforestry experiment may not be of uniform quality.

There are several features of agroforestry systems that require some modification of the methods usually used in agricultural experiments. Important issues related to agroforestry experiments include

Agricultural extension is a term that has long been used to describe a non-formal educational system aimed at improving the livelihood of farmers. Extension education aims at three main types of behavioural changes in relation to knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (how to implement the things). This can be achieved through persuasion and motivation for the changes. The core activities in extension are education and training. Extension is now being regarded as a much wider task of integrating indigenous and new skills and techniques, derived from study or research, into an overall framework of discussion and cooperation between the people and the extension organisation. The extension worker is primarily engaged in the ‘selling’ of ideas to bring about changes in the knowledge, attitudes and skills of the individual. Functions of extension in a broader sense include