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The lymphatic system is an extensive drainage system that returns water and proteins from various tissues back to the blood stream. The system consists of
a network of very fine vessels or tubes called lymphatics that drain lymph from all over the body, and lymphnodes. Lymphatics are found in every part of the
body except the central nervous system.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The ultimate success of an orchard enterprise largely depends upon the quality and genuineness of planting materials as nursery plants are the foundation of the orchard. Fruit crops, mostly being perennial in nature, call for utmost care in selection of cultivar, quality planting material and adoption of right technology for mass multiplication of planting material. Mistakes committed during the initial establishment of orchards cannot be corrected and will cause serious damage to production and productivity. The variation of scion-wood and rootstock has great bearing on the productivity of an orchard. Thus, it is of immense importance having all plants carefully labelled or otherwise marked. Cuttings taken from the mother plant will grow to have the same genetic qualities as the original plant. This is why the plants resulting from these cuttings are called “clones”. When a stem cutting is taken from a mother plant, the piece of stem will produce new roots if it is properly hydrated. Additionally, some plants can be grown from leaf pieces, or leaf cuttings and these will produce both stems and roots.

Thus, the progeny trees are the basic component for the multiplication of fruit plants and ultimately deciding the quality and productivity of the fruit crops. Hence, it is necessary to stock the true to type and best quality progeny trees.

In asexual methods of plant propagation, plant parts are being used as propagating materials. The plant from which the plant parts are collected is known as mother plant. There is every possibility of transmission of disease or pest which is present in the mother plant to the progeny. The mother plants have to be maintained properly to obtain disease free planting materials so that multiplication of disease/pest can be prevented. Thus, there is a need for the establishment of mother plant block/scion banks.

A branch of anatomy that deals with joints or articulations in the body is termed as arthrology or syndesmology. A joint is an articulation or union formed by two or more bones or cartilages with the help of connective tissue. To form a joint, the long bones meet at their extremities e.g. joints of fore limb and hind limb. Joints of flat bones are formed by their borders or edges e.g. joint of bones of skull, the cranial and facial bones. The short bones and irregular bones form a joint by uniting at any of their parts or surfaces e.g. intervertebral joints.

Classification of joints

Joints are classified on the basis of their structure i.e. the kind of tissue material by which the bones are united, the other constituent parts that help in uniting the bones and the kind of movement performed at that joint. On this basis, the following three major types of joints exist in the skeleton of animal body.

Causes: Dietary causes like hypovitaminosis A, nutritional deficiency of vitamin B complex, linoleic acid. Iodine poisoning. Parasitic causes like flea, lice, mange infestation, ring worm.

A branch of anatomy that deals with muscles and their accessory structures is called as myology and the body system concerned with myology is called muscular system. The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibres because of their shape in the form of fibre or spindle. The plasma of these cells contains myofibrils which are contractile elements that cause contraction of muscles in a definite manner under the influence of a stimulus which is a unique property of muscles. These cells together constitute the distinctive muscular tissue.

Classification of muscles

Based on their morphological and functional characteristics, there are three types of muscles in the body.

Smooth muscle: The muscular tissue in this type of muscles is constituted by masses of spindle shaped cells and they occur mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs including glands, the vessels, eye ball and hair follicles. These are nonstriated muscles. Contraction in these muscles is weak but sustained and mostly consistent and rhythmic. The action of this muscle is involuntary i.e. not under the will.

Cardiac muscle: The muscle fibres of this muscle are arranged in irregular masses and they form cross striations. The ends of some fibres come in contact with the sides of others forming a kind of syncytium. This is a striated muscle and its action is involuntary. This muscle occurs only in the wall of the heart and the immediate proximal ends of the major blood vessels like aorta, venacava and the pulmonary veins.

• Web Portal
• Types of Portals

The respiratory system is a complex biological system comprised of several organs that facilitate the inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide (breathing) in living organisms. The major functions of the respiratory system is providing oxygen to the body cells and removing carbon dioxide from the body. In addition to this, the respiratory system helps in controlling body temperature (especially in dogs), eliminating water (as vapour) and assisting in voice production. The organs of respiratory system extend from nose to lungs. These consist of two major parts, the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract is comprised of nose, nasal cavity, the part of mouth, and the part of pharynx. The lower respiratory tract is comprised of the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.

Nose

The nose is the externally visible part of the respiratory system. It forms the part of the face of the animal extending from the transverse level of eyes to the rostral end of the head. Exteriorly it is formed by the bones, muscles, cartilages and the skin. Internally it encloses the nasal cavity which is lined by the mucous membrane. The dorsal part of the nose (roof of the nasal cavity) is termed as dorsum nasi. It is formed by the nasal and frontal bones of the skull. The lateral parts are formed by the incisive, maxillary, lacrimal and zygomatic bones. Covering these bones externally is a muscular layer formed by the facial muscles running over these bones and acting on the upper lip and nostrils. The muscular layer is externally covered by the skin. The skin on the nose bears fine hairs except at the tip of the nose that is formed by the nostrils. The rostral end of the nose is formed by nostrils which provide entrance to the nasal cavity. The nostrils are supported by cartilages which are the dorsal and ventral extensions of the cartilage of the nasal septum. The main aim of the nose is to support and protect the nasal cavity.

As the aquarium industry expands, its legal, ethical, and environmental dimensions have gained increasing importance. Responsible and sustainable fishkeeping hinges on a clear understanding of wildlife regulations, species preservation, animal rights, and the potential ecological impact of aquarium activities.
In India, the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 forbids the capture and trade of specific native species. Breeding or selling fish such as Channa species, Tor species, or reptiles like the Red Sand Boa is deemed illegal unless special authorization is obtained. Introducing invasive species into natural ecosystems is also regulated, as such activities can disrupt ecological balances and cause long-term damage.
Globally, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) monitors and controls the international trade of vulnerable species such as seahorses, various corals, and marine turtles. Anyone involved in import or export must follow strict documentation, permitting, and inspection protocols. Environmental concerns linked to the trade include destructive collection methods, reef degradation, and improper disposal of fish or water into natural environments. Responsible aquarists are encouraged to prioritize captive-bred fish, buy only from sustainable sources, and adopt proper tank management and waste disposal practices.
Ethically, aquarists must avoid animal mistreatment by preventing overcrowding, offering suitable tank conditions, and ensuring the health and welfare of all aquatic life. Awareness campaigns, effective law enforcement, and the promotion of sustainable practices can transform fishkeeping into a tool for conservation, public education, and sustainable livelihoods.

Agriculture has been the base of human livelihood since ancient time when the man started planting of seeds of some edible plants now called Agricultural crops. Domestication of food plants and animals was started with the development of human civilization. Thus agriculture can be explained as science and technology of growing food crops and rearing of animals. Still in several countries of the world, most of population is based on agriculture for their livelihood particularly in rural areas of that country. According to Williams and Haq (2002) there are over 7000 species of plants that can be used for food. The edible plants species grown for food are called agricultural crops. The crops grown in garden are known as garden cops or Horticulture crops. Horticulture is a branch of agriculture, which deals with intensive cultivation of garden crops such as fruits, vegetables, f lowers, ornamental plants, plantation crops, spices, medicinal and aromatic plants, and mushroom. It also deals with post-harvest technology of horticultural crops. Processing and Preservation of fruits and vegetables is a part of Post-harvest Technology of horticultural crops which deals with methods of processing and preservation of these crops to extend the shelf life of fruits and vegetables after harvesting.

All horticultural crops have their own importance in our society. Fruits, vegetables and spices are major ingredients of our meal. Spices add taste and flavor to our food and also have high medicinal values. Flowers and ornamental plants are used for decoration of environment and landscape. Aromatic and plantation crops have become industrial crops. Mushroom growing is a great enterprise. Among these crops fruits and vegetables are major crops and have been considered presently as highly economical and important food crops. There are 1200 crop species are used for vegetable purpose in the world (Hazra and Som, 2006). Fruits and vegetables are richest and cheapest source of all essential nutrients (carbohydrates, fat, protein, vitamins and minerals) required by our body for proper functioning of body organs and maintaining good health. Besides these nutrients they also supply water and fibers to our body which play vital roles in our body. Fruits and vegetables have important place in our daily diet and based on survey made by experts FAO WHO (2003) has recommended 400 g/capita/day of fruit and vegetables (fruits -100 g/capita/day and vegetables -300 g/capita/day) to be consumed for good health and prevent chronic diseases. Therefore, the demand of these food commodities has increased in the modern society due to increased awareness of the nutritional importance of fruits and vegetables. So that people must be aware that what part of fruit and vegetable is to be consumed?

Environment in which crops are grown dictates their final yield. Of these environmental factors, climate and weather the uncontrolable factors, have maximum influence on crop productivity. Vagaries of weather subject a crop to different ecological situations from year to year leading to differential responses of crops to input resources. This situation limits the use of costly inputs for realizing optimum yield. While weather itself cannot modify, the hazardous weather can often be mitigated by agronomic management. Therefore, the primary requirement for initiating agronomic measures against weather hazards is foreknowledge of weather situation that is likely to develop in an area.

Pituitary gland

The pituitary gland (hypophysis) lies at the base of the skull and is housed within a bony structure called the sella turcica in the body of the basisphenoid bone. It is a small pea shaped gland which is attached to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk. The pituitary gland has two distinct parts called the lobes. These are the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe which is also called as anterior pituitary consists of five types of cells, each of which secretes different hormone or hormones. The types of cells, the hormones secreted by each type and the functions performed by them are narrated below.

Objectives

• To study working principles of simple microscope
• Study different parts of simple microscope

Introduction

This is the first ever microscope. It was founded by Leeuwenhoek in 17^th century. He combined a convex lens with a specimen holder, for seeing the magnified images of small objects. It looks like a magnifying glass because it has the capacity to magnify between 200 and 300 times. A simple microscope is a small focal lens used to view the magnified images of small objects. It is just like a hand lens and glass with relatively lower magnification power.

Natural farming provides a holistic, sustainable approach to agriculture that aligns with natural processes while offering significant ecological and economic benefits, especially within the Indian agricultural landscape.
Natural farming rejuvenates soil health by eliminating synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Instead, it relies on inputs like desi cow dung and urine, mulching, and fermented bio-concoctions such as Jeevamrit. These inputs enhance soil organic matter, improve microbial diversity, and support natural nutrient cycles. As a result, soils under natural farming retain water better, allow for proper aeration, and are more fertile and resilient to climate-induced stressors like drought and floods.
The practice also promotes biodiversity. Without chemical runoff, ecosystems support pollinators, birds, and beneficial insects. Techniques such as intercropping, trap cropping, and the use of native seeds further balance the agro-ecosystem, naturally controlling pests and fostering long-term ecological harmony.
Economically, natural farming significantly lowers input costs. Farmers avoid purchasing costly synthetic chemicals and genetically modified seeds, instead utilizing affordable, farm-made formulations like Neemastra and plant-based repellents. This reduces market dependency and increases self-sufficiency.
States such as Andhra Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh have seen positive economic shifts where natural farmers report reduced debt levels and improved net incomes, Although yields may be marginally lower, the drastic reduction in input costs ensures better profitability.

Brain

The brain, a command centre of the body, is a complex organ. The substance of the brain is made of the grey matter and the white matter. The grey matter is often identified as cerebral cortex but other parts of the brain also contain the grey matter. Inside the brain, the grey matter is organized into large accumulations of neurons which are called the nuclei of the brain. Each nucleus is associated with a specific function. In addition to neurons, there is other type of cells the glial cells called neuroglia. The neurons are responsible for sending and receiving impulses or signals. The glial cells are nonneuronal and provide support and nutrition to neuronal cells, form myelin and facilitate signal transmission in the nervous system. The white matter is made of millions of nerve fibres that are coming from neurons and are going to establish communications with different parts of the brain and spinal cord. Since these nerve fibres are coated with myelin sheath around them these appear white and the area occupied by these nerve fibres become the white matter of the brain.

The brain has three basic components, the forebrain, midbrain and the hindbrain.

Fore brain: The forebrain (Prosencephalon) is the rostral portion of the brain. It consists of cerebrum (Telencephalon) and the thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal gland together constituting the interbrain (Diencephalon).

Mid brain: The midbrain (Mesencephalon) is the middle portion of the brain. It is in the centre lying between the interbrain and hindbrain. It consists of a cranial part of brain stem.

Hind brain: The hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) is the caudal most portion of the brain. It consists of remaining (caudal) part of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata (Myelencephalon) and the cerebellum and pons (Metencephalon).

Horse

The first cervical vertebra (atlas) of horse is more or less similar to that of ox with a few variations as below

The wings of atlas are curved ventrad and laterad. These are thinner than in ox but their borders are thick.

The wings present an additional foramen, the transverse foramen in the caudal part.

A faint groove on the ventral surface of the wing connects the transverse foramen to the intervertebral foramen.

(Method of Hyden 1955a,b)
I. Use of Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)

These compounds are manufactured through the reaction of ethylene oxide with water, ethylene glycol or diethylene glycol to furnish functional  groups (in this case hydroxyl) for the propagation of the reaction. The process results in a mixture of diols of different chain lengths, in which the numbers of molecules of various sizes are presumed to be represented by Poisson’s distribution (Shaffer, Critchfield and Nair, 1950b). Polyethylene glycols 200, 300, 400 and 600 are fluids: compounds 1,000, 1,500, 4000, 6000 and 1,0000 are solids of increasing firmness. PEG compounds of molecular weight above 1000 are not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract of the rat and man.

Polyethylene glycol has been used frequently as a water soluble marker in studies of absorption in man and animals (Sperber et al., 1953; Hyden, 1955a,b; Corbett et al., 1956; Gray et al., 1960; Weller et al., 1962; Ulyatt, 1964a,b; Walker and Hawley, 1965; Tulloh et al., 1965; Sinha et al., 1970; Nagel and Piatkowshi, 1972).

Aim

To know the method of rehabilitation of downed animal within exercise wheel cart.

Indication

Irreparable trauma to vertebral column,permanent paralysis, downed animal.

The water contents expressed under certain standard conditions are commonly referred to as soil moisture constants. They are used as reference points for practical irrigation water management. The usage of these constants together with the energy status of soil water gives useful knowledge. These constants are briefly explained below:

6.1 Saturation Capacity

Saturation capacity refers to the condition of soil at which all the macro and micro pores are filled with water and the soil is at maximum water retention capacity”. The matric suction at this condition is essentially zero as the water is in equilibrium with free water. Excess water above saturation capacity of soil is lost from root zone as gravitational water.

Growth: Growth involve cell division subsequently cell elongation. Increase in volume that is associated with fruit growth largely result of cell division or cell elongation or both. In some fruit such as apple, extension of intercellular space may also contribute the growth. Generally growth by cell division in early stage whereas, cell elongation during later stage.

Two distinct type of growth curve are observed when increase in such variable such as fresh weight, volume and dry weight of fruit.

1. Single sigmoid curve
2. Double sigmoid curve

In case of single sigmoid growth curve firstly there is rapid increase in size then after decline so there is only one rapid growth is observed e.g. Apple, pear, tomato, cucumber and strawberry.

In case of double sigmoid two rapid growth period are separated by an intermediate period that is less growth or no increasing growth curve. Double sigmoid growth curve can be used as two successive sigmoid curve thus there are three clearly define stage of growth.

Enzymes are biocatalysts that change the rate of reaction without being changed themselves. All (Most) enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes. Ribonuclease is the enzyme which is non- protein in nature.

Properties of Enzymes