eChapters

Introduction

A machine shop is a place with machining tools and supplies where hand and power tools are used to make, finish, refurbish, or repair machines and their parts. Machine shops come in helpful for repairing and fabricating a wide range of metal things.

Machining

Machining is the most extensive technological procedure in the manufacturing industry. 

Introduction

Carbohydrates, the aldehyde/ ketone derivatives of the higher polyhydric alcohols, or compounds that yield these derivatives on hydrolysis, constitute of mainly four groups viz. monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Energy comes mostly from carbohydrates, and products of their degradation are also used for the synthesis of other substances including fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids etc They are also components of compound lipids, conjugated proteins, and some of their derivatives can even function as medications (e.g., cardiac glycosides, etc). Disorders such as glycogen storage disorders (GSDs) and galactosemia can be brought on by an inherited lack of certain enzymes in the metabolic pathways of various carbohydrates. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by disruption of the metabolism of glucose.

In ruminants, the end products of digestion are largely volatile fatty acids viz. acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid and some monosaccharides. As they pass through the ruminal epithelium, they undergo different degrees of metabolism. The fate of volatile fatty acids are as follows: Acetate as precursor to Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle; fat synthesis); Propionate as precursor to glucose (glycolysis; milk lactose) and Butyrate as precursor to Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle). All the digested and absorbed monosaccharides and volatile fatty acids enter into the liver, where two mechanisms operate such as withdrawal of carbohydrates from blood (e.g. glycogenesis; glycolysis etc) and release of glucose by liver to blood (e.g. glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis etc). In case of monogastrics, the processes of digestion/ fermentation of carbohydrates especially occur in the small intestine. The fate of absorbed glucose and metabolic conversions in the animal body mainly comprise of storage as glycogen in liver and muscle (small amount); oxidation of glucose for providing energy (via Glycolysis pathway; other alternative pathways such as Hexose Monophosphate Pathway (HMP)/ HMP Shunt and Uronic acid pathway etc) and fat synthesis as well as storage in the form of fat in adipose tissue.

OBJECTIVE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

Objective

Objectives are expression of the ends towards which our efforts are directed.

The objective of extension is to develop the rural people economically, socially and culturaly by means of education. Overall, these objectives are divided into 4 types they are :

a)   Material objective

b)   Educational objective

c)   Social and cultural objective

d)   Developing leadership objective

a) Material objective

According to National Commission on Agriculture (1976). Agriculture extension aims at improving the efficiency of human capital, an effort to rapidly increase the rate of agricultural production. It also seeks to import necessary skill to farmer to understand the improved agricultural operation and improve the their own income, own resource and also the money value.

b) Educational objective

Extension education also aims at development of individual to change in behaviour by identifying their knowledge, skill, attitude and action. It aims at increasing the knowledge of people to analyse their past, present and expected future situation, to become aware of problem identification, solution and also realising their felt and unfelt need.

Animals need to function efficiently during reproduction in order for a dairy production system to be sustainable. This is necessary to produce milk, the primary product of interest, as well as to supply replacement animals. From the perspective of reproduction, delayed puberty, lengthy calving intervals, limited productive lives, and high calf mortality are the key variables that cause economic losses. Reproductive management’s proportionate contribution to the effectiveness of dairy production systems varies greatly.

Introduction

The dairy industry is a cornerstone of worldwide agricultural economies, underpinning nutrition, employment, and rural development. India stands out among nations with thriving dairy sectors, accounting for approximately 23% of global milk production (Prasad et al., 2023). With advent of Operation Flood in the late 1970s, India’s dairy industry has undergone transformative changes. This movement revolutionised milk production, rural income, and the organisation of cooperatives. The Indian dairy sector is still unorganized and only 18-20 per cent of the total milk produced is handled by organized sector (Gowda, 2023). There is rising trend of value addition along with rising demand of processed dairy products in India. These changes underscore the importance of effective dairy plant management systems, where strategic oversight of milk procurement, processing, and product manufacturing ensures quality, efficiency, and sustainability.

12.1. Common Term Used • GATT (General Agreements on Tariffs & Trade) • WTO (World Trade Organization) • TRIPS (Trade Related Intellectual Property Right)/IPR/Pateni/Copy right/ Trademark /G.l./Sui generis system etc. • UPOV/PVP/PBR/Farmer’s Right • CBD (Convention on Biodiversity) What is GATT? • Established in 1948 (after 2nd World War) • For the smooth conduct of trade by 22 countries (India was the party) • Several negotiations • Usually trades related to industries • Eight round at Uruguay in 1986 • First time issues on agricultural trade, textile, investment, IPR were discussed • (moral victory for the developing world especially county like IndiaWhat is WTO? • WTO is the only international organization dealing with global rule of trade (through revised GATT agreement; also called as GATT Rule Book) • On 15th April 1994 (1986-194) in Mexico, 125 countries signed the agreement • On 1 January 1995, came in force as WTO • HQ: Geneva; —140 members; wwwAvto.org Function of WTO • Administrating trade agreements. • Providing forum for trade negotiations. / • Settling trade disputes (DSC). • Reviewing national trade policies. • Technical assistance (training). • Cooperating with other institions organizations

The concept of climate-resilient agriculture encompasses a range of approaches, including climate-smart agriculture, conservation agriculture, and agroforestry. These approaches recognize that agricultural development and growth are inextricably linked to climate change, and that farmers, policymakers, and other stakeholders must work together to promote climate-resilient agriculture practices. The dynamics of development and growth engineering in the context of climate-resilient agriculture are complex and multifaceted. They involve understanding the interactions between climate change, agricultural productivity, and rural livelihoods, as well as the role of institutions, policies, and technologies in promoting climate-resilient agriculture practices. Several driving factors are influencing the dynamic development of climate-resilient agriculture (Fig. 7.1). These include:
Increased awareness of climate change impacts on agriculture, leading to growing demand for climate-resilient agriculture practices.
• Advances in climate information and early warning systems, enabling farmers and policymakers to make more informed decisions.
• Growing recognition of the importance of soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystem services in promoting climate-resilient agriculture.
• Increased investment in climate-resilient agriculture research and development, leading to the development of new technologies and practices.
• Effective governance for growth is critical for promoting climate-resilient agriculture. This requires:
• Strong institutions and policies that support climate-resilient agriculture, including laws, regulations, and incentives.
• Inclusive coordination and collaboration among stakeholders, including farmers, researchers, policymakers, and private sector actors.
• Investment in climate information and early warning systems, as well as climate-resilient agriculture research and development.
• Support for capacity building and extension services, enabling farmers to access and adopt climate-resilient agriculture practices.
• Agricultural insurance and risk management mechanisms, enabling farmers to manage climate-related risks and uncertainties. By understanding the driving factors and governance requirements for climate-resilient agriculture, policymakers, researchers, and practitioners can work together to promote dynamic development and growth in the agricultural sector, enhancing food security, sustainability, and climate resilience.

Macro: Large.

Macro-and microconsumers: In an ecosystem the primary consumers, feed on plants while other consumers, e.g., secondary and tertiary consumers are called macroconsumers. The decomposers, like bacteria and fungi, are called microconsumers.

Macro-and micronutrients: Some salts or elements needed in relatively large amount are termed macronutrients while some others though essential for maintaining the life-system are required in minute amounts and are the micronutrients.

Macroclimate: General climate prevailing over a large area, considered as a unit. The opposite is microclimate.

Macroevolution: Major phylogenetic patterns that develop over wide spans of geological time.

Macrofauna: The larger members of a particular fauna. Open to different levels of interpretation for they may be larger vertebrates or alternatively the larger insects of a habitat. The opposite is microfauna.

Macrogamete: The female gametocyte of a malaria parasite, Plasmodium spp; see also Microgamete.

Macrophage: An eater of large particles; see also Microphage.

In rural development, the sole aim is to transfer the technology for better living of people. The process by which the technology is transferred to users is called Transfer of Technology. Transfer of technology falls in the domain of adoption and diffusion. Therefore, it is necessary to understand adoption and its related issues. Adoption of sustainable agricultural practices is relatively difficult as people do not find newness in it. The transfer of technology is explained in terms of technology movement from place of generation to the hands of the users.

French author Jean Giono once remarked, “The God creates the Odours, but the men manufacture the perfumes”. In today’s world, fragrances play bigger role than just being associated with a tiny bottle of liquid. It now serves the larger purpose of linking itself with anything you can imagine, from soaps to your favourite sweater knitted by your grandmother (Biswas, 2012). In the modern day, these products find their applications in items for personal sophistication to culinary delights and beverages, to a host of industrial products (Dev, 1993). India, a country known for its vast range of fragrant flowers and herbs, has used extracts from such raw material to produce incense sticks, medicines, body massage oils and sweet savouries.

The word ‘perfume’ is derived from the Latin term ‘perfumen’, meaning ‘through smoke’. Perfume is a fragrant liquid mainly distilled from natural oils, aromatic chemicals and resinoids; cologne is a lightly scented liquid used to cool the skin and deodorant contains chemicals to counter offensive body odour. Perfume is basically used by women, cologne by men and deodorant by both (Saha and Sareen, 1997). Throughout antiquity there was a continuous demand for incense, to mark the rites of scenting passage from birth to the grave, for the daily rituals of incensing rooms, linen and clothing. The South Asian synonym for perfume, ‘attar’, on the other hand, is derived from the Arabic word ‘aettr’ meaning ‘fat’ or ‘extract’. Almost all attars are basically aromatic oils extracted from flowers, plants and herbs through steam distillation. Some fragile flowers and oils that can not stand the heat of distillation are, however, crushed and the oil expelled by mechanical force (Mahmud, 1992).

1.0 INTRODUCTION
 
Coriander is a native of southern Europe and Asia Minor. In a treatise, Farrell (1999) has described coriander as indigenous to the Near East and Mediterranean region of North Africa and Southern Europe. According to early Sanskrit writings, coriander was known as far back as 5000 BC for its cultivation in India. Persia grew coriander 3000 years ago for adding fragrance to hanging garden of Babylon and seeds were found in Egyptian tombs of 960 BC. It has been used as an ingredient to traditional and folk medicine in the Middle East and Asia for more than 2000 years. There is archaeological evidence of coriander cultivation from Early Bronze Age in Macedonia (Fragiska, 2005)

Since genetic variability is essential for any crop improvement programme, the creation and management of genetic variability becomes central to crop breeding. Experimentally induced mutations provide an important source of variability. An advantage of such created variability is that the starting point can be an agronomically accepted cultivar rather than a genetic stock of no direct commercial value with many undesirable attributes. It should, however, be realized that none of the imposed treatments in a plant system has so far been able to direct a specific change. As a result, following mutagenic treatments, a mixed bag of induced variants is found and many of these may not be of any value. Also, many events take place concurrently in a treated cell to produce variation at several loci within a genome. Because of these reasons it will be unrealistic to expect miracles out of a mutation breeding programme. The desired results can be achieved only when the objectives are clearly defined and the experiments are specifically designed to achieve those objectives. When a mutant of the required type is obtained, we only reach the step of identification of a desired recombinant in a conventional breeding programme and all the succeeding steps of evaluation of the mutant are in no way different from those in the conventional breeding procedures.

Introduction

The milling machine is one of the maximum flexible conventional system equipment with a huge variety of steel-reducing capabilities. Many complex operations along with indexing, multi-milling and saddle milling, etc. may be completed on a milling system. A milling device is a tool that cuts steel at the same time as the workpiece is fed closer to a rotating multi-element milling cutter. This machine can also contain one or greater knives at a time. That is why a milling device has extensive utility in production work. It’s better for other machines when it comes to precision and a better surface finish. It is also designed to perform a variety of jobs in the tool room.

Father of Extension: James Stuart •

Word Extension: Derived from Latin roots “ex” - Out “tensio” - Stretching

Extension term originated in England as University Extension in 1866.

The term Extension Education first used in 1873 by Cambridge University.

Philosophy of Extension (Kelsey and Hearne, 1967): How to think.

Binet test: Intelligence test (IQ)

Function of Extension: Change in Attitude, Skill and Knowledge of an individuals.

Extension Education Process: Extension education is a participative and continuous process

Learning Situation: It is a condition or environment in which all the elements necessary for promoting learning are present.

Elements of effective learning situations in Extension are:

3.1 Introduction

Water used for irrigation can be stored mainly in three sources i.e. soil reservoir, surface reservoir or groundwater reservoir. Accordingly the storage system can be defined as soil reservoir storage system, surface reservoir storage system or groundwater storage system. Each of these storage systems has its own merit and demerit. Some of the storage systems though economical but are not helpful to store the irrigation water for longer periods. On the other hand, some other storage systems are very costly, but the irrigation water can be stored there for a longer period. However, before adopting a particular storage system, economics of the system need to be calculated. The cost of installation of the system and the water stored in the storage system and its use as supplemental irrigation to the crops to increase the production in terms of monetary benefit need to be assessed and then the economics of the system should be computed. The storage system that gives maximum benefit-cost ratio and net present value should be adopted for storage of irrigation water. The different types of storage systems are discussed below.

Abstract

Discovery of the agricultural utility of microbes during the later part of the eighteenth century, led to the formulation and utilization of superior microbial strains as biofertilizers, for a wide variety of crops and growing conditions across the world. Though microbial inoculants have been in usage for almost two centuries, they are yet to capture the collective imagination of farmers across the globe, which is essential to meet the larger objective of reducing chemical input usage in cropping systems. One probable reason for this is the existence of large growing tracts that are subject to various abiotic stresses of atmospheric and edaphic origin, which limit the proliferation and efficiency of the microbial strains that are commonly used in inoculant production.  This is obvious, since unlike chemical fertilizers, microbial cells being living systems need to grow and thrive in the introduced eco-systems in order to achieve the desired effects of inoculation. But unfortunately microbial inoculant technology has largely adopted the one size-fit all mindset, which had led to failures of microbial inoculants especially in abiotically stressed growing environments. In such a scenario it would be wise to adopt a location or region specific approach for the selection of superior and locally adapted microbial strains for inoculant production.

Abstract

Domestic market both for cut flowers as well as loose flowers have increased significantly owing to rapid urbanization, changes in social attitude, increase in income level and the increasing habit of ‘saying it with flowers’. The per capita consumption of flowers is increasingly growing up due to which the production has been increased and non-traditional areas have emerged as important players in floricultural production. In this scenario of intensive production system, protected cultivation can be a viable option. Protected cultivation offers unique opportunities to produce high quality flowers round the year and insulate from weather vagaries thus, reduceing risk from the climatic variations. Protected structure comprises of high cost, medium cost and low cost polyhouses and each structure needs specific varieties and technologies to achieve maximum yield. Hence, breeding program should be based on structure and climate as it has been observed that varieties bred in Northern hemisphere under high cost greenhouses are not performing alike in medium and low cost polyhouses of Southern hemisphere. Breeding work in India has been carried out in wide range of floriculture crops. Breeding of many floricultural crops are in fact not always simple and straightforward due to polyploidy, complex ancestry involving one or more species, aneuploidy, and in some families self and cross sterility barriers, etc. It appears that breeders have vast opportunities to incorporate disease and insect screening and development of varieties for protected cultivation in routine breeding programs during the evaluation of seedlings. To develop varieties for such adversities, our research institutes should have enough infrastructures to carry out required research. In a few areas, protected cultivation has succeeded in India due to efforts of private companies and enterprising farmers. Recently, with greater efforts of ICAR a few public institutions have started breeding of flower varieties suited for protected cultivation.

10.1 General

The term “biomass” generally refers to renewable organic matter generated by plants through photosynthesis. Materials having organic combustible matter is also referred under biomass.

Biomass is an important fuel source in our overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. During this process conversion of solar energy in sugar and starch, which are energy rich compounds takes place. The chemical reaction of photosynthesis can be written as:

When any beam is loaded, stresses are induced and so to calculate those stresses, shear force and bending moment acting at load or support location must be required to calculate.

Plants are often exposed to various abiotic and biotic stresses and have developed specific mechanisms to adapt, survive and reproduce under these stresses (Pieterse et al., 2009). Abiotic stresses include drought, water logging, high temperature, cold(low temperature), salinity, chemical pollution (xenobiotics), uv radiation, heavy metal and oxidative and plants are also challenged by biotic stresses through microbial pathogens such as myco-plasma, nematodes, fungi bacteria (Tippmann et al., 2006). The biology of plant cell is more complicated with any foreign stimulus from the environment; multiple pathways of cellular signaling and their interactions are activated. These interactions mainly evolved as mechanism to enable the plant systems to respond to stress with minimum and appropriate physio- biochemical processes. Abiotic and biotic stress induces signals and theses signals are recognized by receptors, followed by generation of secondary messengers e.g. activation of ion channels, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) Xiong et al., 2002, accumulation of hormones (Bari and Jones, 2009; Peleg and Blumwald, 2011) such as salicylic acid (SA), ethylene (ET), jasmonic acid (JA) and abscisic acid (ABA). Secondary messengers are responsible for modulating intracellular level of calcium, often initiating protein phosphorylation cascade, which may leads to the activation of various proteins directly involved in cellular protection (Tippmann et al., 2006) Fig.1.