eChapters

Origin and diversification of Mangroves

Mangroves are quite old, possibly arising just after the first angiosperms (Duke 1992). Based on the fossil evidence and recent molecular studies, it is believed that mangroves originated along the shorelines of ancient Tethys Sea and there was a dispersal along the Tethys seaway westward into the Atlantic and further into the east Pacific (long before the closure of the Panama Isthmus) and eastward into South east Asia and Australia during the Late Cretaceous or early Eocene around 80 million years ago (Duke 2006). Nypa seems to be earliest fossil evidence. However, prior to closure of Tethys sea, around 40-55 million years ago, the mangrove genera - Nypa, Acrostichum, Rhizophora, Avicennia, Pelliciera, Sonneratia, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Heritiera, and Aegiceras - were present around shoreline (Duke 2017). The closure of Tethys Seaway by the mid-Tertiary (34-50 Million years ago) by northward movement of African landmass, created a physical barrier that completely terminated the Atlantic East Pacific (AEP) and Indo-West Pacific (IWP) exchange route, and resulted in subsequent diversifications within the AEP and IWP regions influenced by region-specific events (Ellison et al. 1999; Duke 2006). The plate tectonics and other vicariant events like Pleistocene sea level rise are attributed to the current distribution pattern and disjunct distributions of species within genera. Duke (2017) hypothesised two separate westward dispersal routes in AEP: (i) a southern path along the coasts of West Africa, South America and, (ii) a northern path along the North American east coast, whereas he hypothesised two isolated pathways in IWP towards eastward dispersal: (i) a northern path along the coast to the Middle East, Southeast Asia and, (ii) a southern path along the coasts of East Africa, India, and Australia. Further he noted that collision of India and Australia with Middle East and Southeast Asia respectively, resulted complication in dispersal route. Based on the available records it is presumed that diversification of mangrove plants has largely been driven by three key processes of speciation viz., Allopatric speciation, Peripatric speciation and Parapatric speciation (Duke 2017).

Mangrove forests are ecologically significant and economically important (Kathiresan 2018). They provide ecosystem services worth at least US$ 1.6 billion each year and support coastal livelihoods worldwide (Costanza et al. 1997). They serve as the nursery, feeding and breeding grounds for crabs, prawns, molluscs, finfish, birds, reptiles and mammals. A large amount of global fish catches (up to 80%) is dependent on mangroves, thereby ensuring the food security of coastal people (Ellison 2008). The mangroves provide firewood, timber, cattle feed, honey, medicines and tourism development. They protect groundwater aquifers from seepage of seawater, thereby ensuring water security for coastal population. Mangrove forests remove coastal pollution particularly toxic heavy metals. They offer coastal protection against the fiery effects of natural calamities such as tsunami, storm surges, cyclone and floods (Kathiresan and Bingham 2001; Kathiresan and Qasim 2005; Kathiresan and Rajendran 2005). The potential of mangroves in carbon capture and sequestration is remarkable in mitigating the impacts of global warming and climate change (Kathiresan et al. 2013, 2014).

Origin

The world ‘Communication’ comes from the Latin word ‘communis’, meaning common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish ‘Commonality’ with someone through a message. Communication, then, is a conscious attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like, with others. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages.

Definition – Listening vs Hearing – Active listening – Types of listening – Guidelines for effective listening – Developing listening skills - Barriers to listening – Listening misconceptions.

Listening skill is key to receiving messages effectively. It is a combination of hearing what another person says and psychological involvement with the person who is talking. Listening is a skill of Language. It requires a desire to understand another human being, an attitude of respect and acceptance, and a willingness to open one’s mind to try and see things from another’s point of view. It requires a high level of concentration and energy. It demands that we set aside our own thoughts and agendas, put ourselves in another’s shoes and try to see the world through that person’s eyes.

Introduction

Listening is a language modality. It is one of the four skills of a language i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing. It involves an active involvement of an individual. Listening involves a sender, a message and a receiver. It is the psychological process of receiving, attending to constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or non verbal messages.

A footnote is a notation at the bottom of the page in a printed document. Footnotes are usually presented in smaller print than the dominant text, and they are used for a variety of purposes. The “foot” in “footnote” refers to the fact that the notation is located in the “footer” or “bottom” of the document. A similar concept is the endnote, a note which is provided at the end of a document, rather than at the bottom of a specific page. When a text has footnotes, they are indicated with various symbols or superscript numbers. The asterisk symbol, *, is a common symbol for footnotes, but a variety of symbols including daggers, †, may be used. In a text with a lot of footnotes, numbers are usually used to indicate footnotes, so that the reader can keep track of what is going on. Endnotes are typically indicated with numbers, to make it easier for people to look them up.

Different style manuals have different rules about using footnotes, and it is important to follow style guidelines when submitting material for publication. Because footnoting can get very complicated, most style guidelines devote at least a few pages to the footnote. Some people avoid using footnotes at all, while others relish footnotes, because footnotes provide a great degree of freedom when they are used well.

The genetic organization of cross pollinated crops are different from that of self pollinated crops, because of differences in the reproductive system. Open pollinated populations are heterozygous with free inter mating individuals, heterozygous at most of the loci. Heterozygosity is an essential feature of commercial varieties of out breeders. It is maintained during breeding or is restored at the end. Population improvement involves selection, generation after generation, with recombination of selected individuals. Its aim to increase the frequency of favorable alleles in the population. The improved forms may be used for commercial cultivation or as a base germplasm for the derivation of inbred lines. The list of cross pollinated plants is presented in Table 10.1. The factors that promote the cross pollination are dicliny, dichogamy, herkogamy, self-incompatibility and male sterility. The breeding methods which are commonly used in cross-pollinated crops are population improvement, hybrid and synthetic varieties.

Population Improvement

In cross pollinated crops heterozygosity must be restored in the end product of any breeding programme. It is classified into the following types:

Hybrids are produced by crossing two genetically diverse parents variety. Hybrid vigour is at its maximum in the F₁ generation and hence highest emphasis is placed on the F₁ hybrids. Hybrid varieties leads to maximum exploition of heterosis as compared to any other varieties. Beal in 1880 recommended the use of F₁ varietal crosses of maize for commercial cultivation.

Tissue culture is a technique used to culture cells, tissues, organs or whole plant under controlled environmental conditions that in vitro condition is known as plant tissue culture. Plant tissue culture exploits the totipotency nature of plant cells, ability to develop in to complete plantlet.

Introduction

India is considered as the “Home of Spices”. They are a prized group of minor components and have been an integral ingredient of Indian diet. Since antiquity, spices form an important part of the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia (The Indian System of Medicine), with their widespread traditional use. With its wide climatic conditions and topographical features, India naturally possesses wide variety of medicinal flora. The country enjoys the distinction of being the largest producer and consumer of spices as well as the fastest growing spice market in the world.

Spices are potent plant foods that possess a wide range of nutrient bioactive compounds that contribute to improve health, while adding variety, colour, flavour and aroma to daily diet. The term spice or condiment applies to “such natural plant or vegetable products or mixtures thereof, in whole or ground form, as are used for imparting flavour, aroma and piquancy to and for seasoning food” (Sikri and Berwal, 2008).

Webster (2011) describes spices as ‘Any of various aromatic vegetable productions as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, allspice, ginger, cloves, etc., used in cookery to season and to flavour sauces, pickles, etc.; a vegetable condiment or relish, usually in the form of a powder; also, as condiments collectively’.

ABSTRACT

With the rapid innovation in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), the libraries and information centres have gone through tremendous changes or facing transformation. In this digital era, libraries are facing heavy technological pressure to serve their users on their satisfaction level. Library and information professionals are also struggling more to implement these cutting-edge technologies for learning, research, and information for their users. Therefore, the library and information centres have now been trying to adopt and implementing various emerging or cutting-edge technologies in housekeeping activities as well as in its services. In this paper, an effort has been made to evaluate some of the cutting-edge technologies in libraries’ point of view. An overview is also made to evaluate the concept, advantages and disadvantages of cutting-edge technologies.

Keywords: ICT, Cutting-Edge technology, Emerging technology, Library services, Impact.

ABSTRACT

As we all know that emergence of internet has completely changed the way of transferring knowledge. Online videos and lectures have been adopted by the online educational community to meddle into the MOOCs massively to disperse the knowledge. No field has remained untouched from MOOCs. This is basically a study on the available MOOCs in India in Library and Information science.

Keywords: MOOCs, Massive Open Online Course, SWAYAM, Library and Information Science.

1. Introduction

Dave Cormier devised the term Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) in 2008 to describe an open online course “Connectivism and Connective Knowledge” designed by Siemens and Downes. University of Manitoba offered MOOC for the first time in 2008 formally as a credit course to regular students and informally with enrolment open to anybody in the world free of cost. Since then, there is proliferation of MOOCs worldwide.

ABSTRACT

There is a tremendous growth in the open educational resources in the recent past and large number of universities and academic organisations are making their resources freely available over the internet which has become a significant source of open educational content. Open education movement are built on the belief that anyone can use, access, reuse and redistribute these educational resources without any constraints. These Open education movements are helping educational community worldwide in making education more accessible and in making it more effective. In this chapter effort has been made to provide an overview of the history and emergence of open educational resources’ movement. This chapter also explains the various characteristics and sources of open educational resources. This chapter will help the libraries and librarians to know about open educational resources initiatives and to incorporate them in their libraries for effective resource delivery and disseminations.

Keywords: ICT, OER, Open educational resources, Digital resources, Digital repositories.

ABSTRACT

The study shows the use of information resources and services by the academia. Aim: study focuses on age, designation, gender, qualification and computer literacy impact all use of information resources and services. Objectives: To know the use of information resources by faculty of fashion institute, to study the awareness of OPAC among faculty of fashion institute, to find out the frequency of using library by faculty and to investigate the level of computer literacy. Methodology: used survey method, collected data through questionnaire method. The questionnaire designed and distributed 380 questionnaires to users of selected fashion design institute and we received 120 filled questionnaires. The outcome shows that they are satisfied with information resources and services of Fashion design institution.

Keywords: Information, Resources, Services, Fashion design, Fashion institution, Fashion technology, Swatch library; South India.

ABSTRACT

The hearing impaired Persons constitute a very small percentage of the total population. The article presents the information regarding the infrastructure, the library services to the special group of library users. All the public/academic libraries do not provide services to these groups of the users, hence the institutions specially meant for these persons are responsible for administering services to this group of users. Assistive technology can help to a great extent in providing library services to these groups of users.

Keywords: Physically challenged persons, Hearing impaired library users, Library infrastructure, Library services, Information Technology, Assistive devices.

1. Flavor is a sensory phenomenon depending upon
   1. Taste, texture or mouthfeel
   2. Odour or aroma, appearance
   3. Temperature - sensation of heat or cold
   4. All of these
2. Flavours are minor constituents of foods, usually
   1. Nutritive
   2. Non - nutritive
   3. Energetic
   4. None of them

1. Ginger is generally planted in the month of
   1. January – February
   2. August – September
   3. March – June
   4. October – December
2. Which one of the following slope is preferred for planting of clove
   1. North – West
   2. North – East
   3. South – East
   4. South – North
3. Ginger seedlings will be ready for transplanting
   1. 10 – 15 days
   2. 10 – 15 days
   3. 30 – 40 days
   4. 60 – 70 days

1. Pick the odd one out
   1. Athira
   2. Karthika
   3. Suguna
   4. Aswathy
2. Sreekara is variety of
   1. Turmeric
   2. Black Pepper
   3. Ginger
   4. Cinnamon
3. Find the odd one out
   1. HM107
   2. ML-150
   3. CO4
   4. Pusa early bunching

1.1 Introduction

Fruit breeding is an ancient technology with dynamic current technology and an exciting future (Janick and Moore 1975, 1996). In its broadest sense, fruit breeding refers to the purposeful genetic improvement of fruit crops through various techniques including selection, hybridization, mutation induction and molecular techniques. Its origins trace to the domestication process in prehistory and antiquity, where useful species were chosen and cultivated, and improved by continuous selection (Janick 2005, 2011). Through the millennia genetic improvement of these species have been achieved by grower selection, first from natural seedling populations and then from grower field that continued unique genotypes fixed by vegetative propagation. Spontaneous hybridization between wild plants and cultivated clones was critical to the early domestication of fruits.

2.1 Introduction

The different breeding strategies (methods) that can be employed for improvement of fruit crops include introduction, open pollinated selection, clonal selection, hybrid breeding, polyploidy breeding, mutation breeding, molecular breeding, in vitro breeding and transgenic breeding. Combining traditional approaches with biotechnological approaches will speed up the rate of genetic improvement. Thus, what is required is to adopt a coordinated approach involving breeders, biotechnologists, horticulturists, pathologists, entomologists and statistician for making the cultivation of fruit crops more scientific and more profitable and thereby contributing more to improving the health of the people in a sustainable manner.

6.1 Introduction

Grapes are being grown commercially in the tropics. The region between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn which was once considered to be unsuitable for growing quality grapes is producing good quality grapes. Tropical countries where grapes are grown are India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, South China, Australia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela, West Indies, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe. In India, about 90% of grapes are being produced in the tropical states including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There are three main commercial uses of grape, viz., table, raisin and wine.

19.1 Introduction

Coconut is valued most for its nut. The other components are coconut water, kernel, shell and husk. Coconut water is one of the most refreshing drinks. It is also known for its medicinal value. It increases blood circulation in kidneys, causes profuse diuresis and eliminates mineral poisoning. It is a good substitute for saline glucose under gastroenteritis conditions. The coconut has been regarded as ‘Kalpavriksha’ because all the parts of the palm is useful to mankind in one way or other. The dried kernels commonly called as copra is the richest source of vegetable fat (60-67 % oil). Coconut is major source of edible oil. India is the largest producer of coir and its product. The major coconut growing areas of the world are found in Asia, Oceania, West Indies, Central South America, East and West Africa. In India, coconut is commercially grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Odisha and West Bengal.

Why Make an Insect Collection?

An insect collection helps develop personal identification skills. 

An insect collection can be used to display insects or insect features so that others may learn about them.

An insect collection can allow you to better observe details of insect structures and how they function.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Disease affects the crop at all stages.

Downy Mildew

Plasmopara viticola

• Downy mildew of grapes was catastrophic in France in 1878.

Downy mildew

Pseudoperonospora cubensis

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Yellow, angular spots restricted by veins resembling mosaic mottling appear on upper surface of leaves .

1.1 Agricultural technologies and knowledge

Agricultural technologies and knowledge have, until recently, largely been created and disseminated by public institutions. But over the past two decades, biotechnology for agricultural production has developed rapidly, and the world economy has become more globalised and liberalised

1 Application of lime reduces plant minerals namely

a) Ca b) Zn

c) Mn d) All of the above

1 Study of distribution of diseases and the factors determining its distribution in a population is known as

a) Ethology b) Epidemiology

c) Ecology d) Etiology

Sustainable Development A social cause is a problem that influences a considerable number of individuals within a society. There are many environmental issues the India like pollution, waste management sustainable development, rain water harvesting etc.

A. Define/Explain the following

1. Heteroploidy: Any change in chromosome number from the diploid state.

2. Euploidy: Numerical change in the entire genome.

Plasmid is a double stranded, self replicating, circular extra chromosomal DNA of bacterium. It is used in recombinant DNA experiments to clone genes from other organisms and make large quantities of their DNA. Plasmid can be transferred between same species or between different species. The sizes of plasmids range from 1-1000 kbps. Plasmids are part of mobilomes (total of all mobile genetic elements in a genome) like transposons or prophages and are associated with conjugation.

RNA is transcriptional product of DNA. The total RNA includes three classes, rRNA, tRNA and mRNA. The ribonucleic acids exists as ribonucleo protein particles in intact cells. The ribonucleo protein complex is dissociated by SDS in to RNA and protein deproutinised by phenol and the free RNA left in the aqueous solution is precipitated in cold by adding alcohol. 

Nucleic acid hybridization requires denaturation i.e. the breakage of H-bridges between the complementary strands of the DNA either by heating at high temperatures or by treatment with denaturing chemicals like formamide. The restricted DNA, therefore, is denatured before transfer from the gel onto synthetic membrane since only single stranded DNA binds to nitrocellulose.

DNA can be sequenced in both double stranded and single stranded templates by cloning in plasmid or phage vectors. There are two sequencing methods.

Protoplasts are cells which have had their cell wall removed, usually by digestion with enzymes. Cellulase enzymes digest the cellulose in plant cell walls while pectinase enzymes break down the pectin holding cells together. Once the cell wall has been removed the resulting protoplast is spherical in shape. Digestion is usually carried out after incubation in an osmoticum (a solution of higher concentration than the cell contents which causes the cells to plasmolyse). This makes the cell walls easier to digest. Debris is filtered and/or centrifuged out of the suspension and the protoplasts are then centrifuged to form a pellet. On resuspension the protoplasts can be cultured on media which induce cell division and differentiation.

Developments in recombinant DNA technology have made it possible to transfer gene from any source across species barrier. In fact, transfer and expression of foreign genes in plant cells is now a routine procedure. Of the several methods tried so far, the system based on Ti plasmid of Aprobacterium tumefaciens appears to be most successful for transformation of plant cells.

This chapter outlines the design of Phase One and Phase Two of the research. It outlines the research approaches and methodology utilized in Phase One and Phase Two of the research. The chapter also provides details of the sampling strategies, data sources, collection and analysis of both the phases; and finally addresses ethical issues.

Eigen values of the matrix are

(A) 1 and 2             (B) 1 and 3

(C) 1 and 4            (D) 2 and 3

For station X, the maximum one day rainfall with 25 years return period is 100 mm. The probability of a on day rainfall equal to or greater than 100 mm at station X occurring at least once in 15 successive years is
(A) 0.458             (B) 0.500
(C) 0.637            (D) 0.990

Q. 1 Froude number is the ratio between
(A) Inertia force to viscous forces (B) Inertia force to gravity force
(C) Inertia force to shear force      (D) Gravity force to inertia force

In the detection of soil organic carbon a known weight of soil is heated with an excess volume of standard K2 Cr2 O7 in the presence of Con. H2 SO4 . The soil is slowly digested at the low temperature by the heat of dilution of H2 SO4 and the organic carbon in the soil is thus oxidized to CO2 . The highest temperature attained by the heat of dilution reaction produced with the addition of Con. H2 SO4 is approximately 12o C which is sufficient to oxidize the active forms of the soil organic carbon but not the more inert forms of carbon that may be present.

Dactylis glomerata L (syn. Bromus glomeratus (L.) Scop. (Poaceae): Eng.- Orchard Grass; Kash.- Dramun [W]. Perennial bunch grass,usually in dense shaded forest areas. A very important pasture and hay grass of temperate grasslands. Culms glabrous, erect. Inflorescences are erect panicles bearing spikelets in dense one sided clusters.

Echeveria derenbergii DC (Crussulaceae): Eng.- Painted Lady [NI]. A succulent house plant and green house perennial grown for its succulent coloured leaves which are arranged in rosettes. The orange coloured flowers appear in July on raised stem branches

Halerpestes tricuspis (Maxim.) Hand maz. (Ranunculaceae): LadakhiChitaka [W] Annual herb of alpine zone of above 3500 m altitudes. Whole plant used as stomachic and for gastrointestinal problems.

Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert. (Syn. Saponaria vaccaria L.) (Caryophyllaceae): Eng.- Cow Soapwort/ Cow Basil [W]. Annual herb,as weed of orchards.Plant has blue-grey, waxy herbage and pale pink flowers. Used traditionally to relieve body swellings.

Introduction

India contributes about 5% to the world's eggs and 2.25% to chicken production (FAOSTAT, 2013). Indian Poultry Sector has been one of the fastest growing components of Indian economy with an annual compound growth rate of about 6% and 12% in egg broiler production, respectively. Poultry sector accounts for about 1% of the India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 11.7% of the livestock GDP (National Account Statistics, 2013). With a turnover of over ?600 billion, the sector provides employment to over six million people. The annual per capita availability has increased from 7 eggs in 1961 to 58 eggs in 2012; and poultry meat from 0.16 kg to 2.21 kg during the same period. However, the present availability levels are still far below the ICMR recommendations of 180 eggs and 11 kg meat per capita per annum. Ironically, consumption of poultry products has been highly skewed in favour of urban population. In fact, only 31% of the population residing in urban areas consumes 65% eggs and 70% of poultry meat and in a typical Indian village the egg consumption is not more than 10 eggs per capita per year. Despite higher prices of poultry products in rural areas, the penetrability and reach of poultry products have remained limited in rural India owing to fragmented markets and infrastructural bottlenecks. Sekhon and Tejinder (2007) have estimated that under a moderate growth scenario of 6% per annum in the Country's GDP the demand for meat and eggs is likely to shoot up to 9.7 and 15.32 MMT by 2021 and 2030, respectively. India would be easily able to meet this demand provided, the poultry egg and meat production continue to grow at the current levels.

Introduction

Increasing public concern regarding the use of pharmaceuticals in livestock feeding due to the emergence of drug resistance has led to an enhanced interest to plant derived bioactive compounds as alternative means to improve livestock health and production. Plants bioactive compounds are the plant secondary metabolites having pharmacological or toxicological effects in animals. Secondary metabolites are formed within the plants as well the primary biosynthetic and metabolic routes for compounds associated with plant growth and development, and are considered as products of biochemical deviate in the plant cells and not required daily for the performance of the plant. Some of them are found to have various important functions such as protection, attraction or signaling in the plants. Most species of plants seem to be competent in synthesizing such compounds. Plants with potent bioactive compounds are often characterized as both poisonous and medicinal, and a beneficial or an adverse effect may depend on the quantity eaten by the animal. Some tropical tree leaves and typical food and feed plants with bioactive compounds with less prominent effects, their intakes are usually considered as advantageous.

Introduction

Global warming is chiefly due to combustion of fossil fuels for multifarious energy needs, causing emission of greenhouse gases which trap energy from the sun leading to warming. These climate changes bring in variation in patterns and emergence of new zoonotic diseases to newer areas. These changes sometimes create conducive conditions for the propagation of insect vectors. History shows that most of the diseases have a direct correlation with climatic changes. The survival and propagation of pathogens are directly related to temperature and humidity etc. Extreme shifts in weather patterns resulting from global warming and climate changes adversely affect the ecosystem resulting in new diseases, re-emergence of earlier diseases including emergence of zoonotic diseases. The emergence of the new cholera strain O: 139 and outbreaks of Dengue, West Nile virus and Rift Valley fever in newer and non-endemic areas have been linked with the El Nino effect. The spread of disease agents may be facilitated by factors including environmental conditions, the presence and availability of suitable hosts, the arthropod's feeding behavior and host preferences.

Objective

To study the salient features of important varieties of spices and condiments.

1. Cardamom

Table 3.1: Released/Recommended Cardamom Selections- Estimated Yield and Source of Variability.

2. Black pepper

Table 3.2: Improved varieties of black pepper and their character

Objectives

1. To know the various steps involved in the processing of various spices and condiments.
2. To know the grade of some spices and condiments.

Processing: Perform a series of mechanical or chemical operations on (something) in order to change or preserve it.

Processing of some spices and condiments are given below

1. Black pepper

Processing involves the following steps:

1. The fresh berries are dipped in hot water for a minute which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces the drying time.
2. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for 7-10 days.
3. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkled appearance of black pepper of commerce.