eChapters

Ten Steps in programme evaluation
i. Identify and describe programme you want to evaluate: The first step of the evaluation process is to identify the object or programme of evaluation. For this purpose, a short written description of the object or programme to be evaluated must be drafted. This description must be formulated in a way that is also comprehensible to outsiders. Relevant items to be included in this description are, for example, the name of the object or programme of evaluation, the expert responsible for it, the employees taking part in it, the goals, scientific references, the contents or topics, the elements, methods, scope, available resources, key figures, past developments, etc.
ii. Identify the phase of the programme
• Design
• Start-up
• Ongoing
• Wrap-up
• Follow-up

18.1 INTRODUCTION

Sorrel is a perennial herb, which is found in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northern Mediterranean coast to the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It is of two types such as Garden sorrel that is a native of Europe and south western Asia and French sorrel that is originated in the mountains of southern France and the southern and central regions of Europe and south-west Asia. The name sorrel is derived from the Germanic word, Sur and the old French word Surele, both meaning sour. It is primarily used as a culinary herb for its leaves, which are used in salads too. The leaf of this plant resembles that of spinach and have a lemony lettuce flavour and the plant is well known for strong acidity in Europe and the United States. Sorrel is a rich source of potassium, iron and vitamins A, B₁ and C. The flavour of sorrel leaves is mainly due to oxalic acid, which is harmless when consumed in small amount. Owing to high level of vitamin C content, it was rightly believed to protect against scurvy disease. It is a dioecious plant, that bears unisexual flowers, as the male and female flowers appear on different plants. When the plant flowers, they look very attractive and are often used as an ornamental plant.

18.2 CHOICE OF CULTIVARS

In India, it is not a common leafy vegetable and is grown on a limited scale, mostly in kitchen gardens. Even in Europe and other countries, different local strains are grown for both home gardening and commercial cultivation. Profusion is a cultivar, which mutated naturally in France and produces only leaves without forming seed, and hence, the plant always has fresh and ready to pick leaves.

1. The term limnology is derived from Greek word.

2. Limne means lake.

3. The term limnology was coined by Francois-Alponse forel.

4. August Thienemann and EinarNaumann co-founded the international society of limnology.

5. Welch 1935 described about biological productivity.

6. Epheirology is defined as branch of science deals with terrestrial habitats.

7. Peter Erasmus Muller is credited with laying the foundation stone of limnological study.

8. Anton Fritsch could be considered as the Pioneer in Lacustrine limnology.

9. F.Simony (1850) is regarded sometimes as the founder of limnology for his discovery of thermal stratification.

10. Junge and Forbes who were the first to treat the native waters as microcosm.

1. Father of caning Nicholas apart

2. Tin canister invented by Peter Durand

3. Father of modern canning Bryon Dorkin

4. Pure food act - 1906

5. Invention of pressure retort-1874

6. Double seaming machine invented in - 1890

7. OTS can invented in 1904

8. The first Indian canning industry was constructed in 1911 at chaliyam, Kerala

9. PH above 5.3 food known as low acid food

10. PH 4.5-5.3-known as medium acid food

This chapter introduces the historical development and fundamental concepts of immunology. It highlights the contributions of Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur, Elie Metchnikoff, Paul Ehrlich, Emil von Behring and other pioneering scientists. Important discoveries related to vaccination, phagocytosis, antibody formation, cellular immunity, ELISA, radioimmunoassay and hybridoma technology are addressed. The chapter also explains antigens, immunogens, epitopes, haptens, adjuvants and the desirable characteristics of an effective immunogen. Questions concerning smallpox and rinderpest eradication, vaccine development and primary and secondary immune responses help readers understand the scientific milestones that established immunology as an essential discipline within veterinary and biomedical sciences.

U value : U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties.
 
Ubiquinone : It is one of the groups of lipid soluble quinones that are found especially in mitochondria and have a long isoprenoid side chain, and function in oxidative phosphorylation as electron carrying coenzymes in electron transport.

1. Protein solubility depends up on the amino acids composition

2. Viscosity is influenced by protein solubility & swelling capacity

3. Thermodynamically unstable mixture of immiscible liquid are called as emulsion

4. Emulsion capacity based on the hydro pobisity charecters of myosin

5. Foam is the analogous to the emulsion

6. Protein solubility is the key requisite for foam formation

7. My of ibrilar are the largest water holding filament

8. Cross linking of protein polymer called Gelation

9. Important key characteristics for gel forming ability is freshness of the fish

10. Margarine produces the golden yellow colour

Horse

The muscles of shoulder region namely the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres major, teres minor and coracobrachialis in horse resemble those of ox. The subscapularis muscle has only a single head of origin in horse as against three heads in ox. The deltoideus muscle has two parts of origin as that of ox but in horse its acromial part is named as cranial part and it arises from scapular spine and the scapular fascia instead of the acromion process. In addition to these muscles, the shoulder in horse is composed of one more muscle named as capsularis. The capsularis is a very fine narrow muscle arising from the caudal part of the rim of the glenoid cavity of scapula and is inserted on the caudal part of the neck below the head of the humerus by insinuating itself between the fibres of brachialis muscle. This muscle is peculiar to solipeds and it raises the capsular ligament of shoulder joint during flexion of the joint.

The muscles of arm in horse are in general similar to those of ox except the following minor differences. The tendon of origin of biceps brachii is adapted to the intertuberal (bisipital) groove. The tensor fasciae antibrachii is thin in front and wide below. The medial head of triceps brachii is less developed and extends from the middle of the medial surface of shaft of humerus. The anconeus is smaller and less voluminous.

Amongst the muscles of forearm and manus, the flexors of carpus especially the flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris and the ulnaris lateralis resemble those of ox. The pronator teres is either vestigial or completely absent. The medial digital extensor is absent. The extensor carpi radialis resembles that of ox. The common digital extensor arises in common with the extensor carpi radialis. Its tendon descends over the synovial capsule of the carpus, passes down the metacarpus and at the fetlock it receives two slips from suspensory ligament to form the broad ligament which is inserted to the pyramidal extensor process of the distal phalanx. The lateral digital extensor is smaller. It arises from humerus and radius. Its tendon is inserted to the prominence on the dorsal (cranial) aspect of the proximal extremity of the proximal phalanx. The extensor carpi obliquus is inserted to the head of the medial small metacarpal bone. The superficial digital flexor does not divide into two parts. Its tendon is reinforced above the carpus by a strong fibrous band- the superior check ligament. The ring for the deep digital flexor is formed entirely by the tendon of superficial digital flexor. The deep digital flexor has same heads of origin as those of ox. Its tendon receives about half way down the metacarpus the inferior check ligament. It is inserted to the semilunar crest and tendinous surface of the distal phalanx.

• Highly susceptible to waterlogging.
• Self-compatible in nature.
• Low chilling peach - <500 hrs chilling requirement.
• Red blush skins are caused due to anthocyanins.
• The yellow colour of peach is due to xanthophylls.
• Acid present - Malic acid
• Prunasin is the principal glycoside present in the pulp.
• Amygdalin is present in the seeds of peach.
• The oil content of peach seeds is 40-50%
• Prunus behmi is a natural hybrid of Almond and Peach.
• - Smooth skinned peaches (Prunus persica var. nucipersica) also called nectarine.
• Yellow fleshed peaches are ideal for table and canning purpose.

This chapter examines cytokines as essential signalling molecules that regulate immune and inflammatory responses. It introduces interleukins, interferons, chemokines, tumour necrosis factors and colony-stimulating factors. Their sources, target cells and biological actions are considered in relation to immune-cell activation, differentiation, migration and communication. The chapter explains important properties such as pleiotropy, redundancy, synergy and antagonism. It also covers antiviral activity, chemotaxis, inflammation, fever and the regulation of humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Special attention is given to excessive cytokine production, cytokine storms and septic shock. These questions help readers understand how cytokines coordinate protective immunity and contribute to immune-mediated disease.

Post Harvest Methods
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Brachial plexus (FIG. 5-5 A)

The fore limb is supplied by nerves that extend from the brachial plexus. The brachial plexus is a large wide, flat and thick fascicular anastomosis of nerves formed by the convergence of ventral branches of last three cervical and first two thoracic spinal nerves in ox. It is placed between the scalenus muscle on the lateral wall of thorax and subscapularis and deep pectoral muscles on the costal (medial) surface of the scapula. From this plexus extend the following eleven branches (nerves) which are distributed mainly to the fore limb (thoracic limb) and most of the muscles of the thoracic girdle.

Radiographic positioning refers to placement of the body in respect to linear alignment of X-ray tube and film. Correct positioning is a most important prerequisite to obtain a diagnostic radiograph. Misinterpretations can result from inaccurate positioning.  Label the film before exposure with anatomical lead markers/ X-rite tape. The anatomical markers should be placed in close proximity to the area of interest without overlying important structures. At least two exposures of the part at 900 to each other should be taken to get complete anatomical information of the part.

Introduction

Meat has become an integral part of human food to meet the essential nutrients, like proteins. For a balanced diet, a good biological availability of meat is preferred in the modern day era. The per capita consumption of meat in India is only 14g per day as against the actual requirement of 125g. Non availability of quality meat and its exorbitant prices have restricted meat consumption. Increasing the meat production through intensive rearing of various meat animals will help to meet the ever growing demand of a balanced human diet. In the modern era and educational status social taboos are also getting relegated with need of quality proteins.

The very important role of pigs in human life is control of environmental pollution by scavenging the biological waste. Pig converts biological waste material to quality proteins in the form of pork. Pigs have a rapid growth rate, high reproductive efficacy, require comparatively less space, and can be reared on small scale in backyards or as commercial units.

Introduction
Food Chains
Food chains are made up of organisms that eat and are devoured by one another as a means of transferring energy from the source in plants. “The transfer of energy from plants through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten” is one definition of it.
A food chain is the movement of energy from producers at one trophic level to consumers at the next. In a food chain, energy moves only in one direction. An understanding of food chains can provide important insights into how ecosystems work.
• Grazing food chain
Grazing food chains and detritus food chains are the two main categories of food chains.
The food chain known as grazing begins with living green plants, moves through grazing herbivores, and ends with carnivores. Such a food chain places an immediate demand on ecosystems for solar radiation. From an energy perspective, these chains are very significant.

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of earth. The gas molecules of the atmosphere are pulled towards the earth by the force of gravity and hence exert a force on earth surface. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. Atmospheric pressure inf luences other weather elements in a significant way. Small changes in air pressure may not be felt, but they are important for bringing a change in weather. Atmospheric pressure can be calculated as the summed weight of all gas molecules between a horizontal plane and top of the atmosphere and divided by the area of the plane. Low pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high pressure areas have more atmospheric mass above their location.

FACTORS AFFECTING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Air pressure never remains constant. Air pressure is greatly influenced by air temperature, altitude, water vapour presence in the air, rotation of earth, etc. However, these factors are not independent of each other in affecting the atmospheric pressure.

Temperature: Hot air expands and exerts low pressure. Cold air contracts and exerts high pressure. Thus, increase in temperature decreases the air pressure. Places nearer to equator experience low pressure due to prevalence of high temperature. The air being cold and heavy throughout the year a high pressure belt is created in both polar regions.

Altitude: Pressure varies smoothly from the earth’s surface to the top of the mesosphere. The pressure depends on the density or mass of the air. The density of air depends on its temperature. The density of air decreases with increase in height so the pressure also decreases with increase in height. At low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 metres.

Water vapour: Water vapour content of air is low in cold areas than that in dry areas. Hence, moist air of high temperature in dry areas exerts less pressure compared to cold air.

Livestock population meet the protein requirement of humans in addition to meeting from plants. The food chain starts from fodder crops to animals and from animals to humans. In human physiology, digestion of plant protein is much easier than animal protein, but however the digestion depends on climate (temperate climate, sub-tropical climate, tropical climate etc.,) wherein human kind live. Similar to crops, there is strong interaction between livestock and meteorological weather elements (temperature, relative humidity, wind etc.). But detailed study has not been published elaborately in scientific journals in the past. The weather elements have greater influence on livestock productivity in terms of milk, meat, skin, wool etc., pest and disease infestation and their housing needs. In this chapter how weather elements influence shed management, pest and disease problem and animals’ productivity and are discussed. In majority of the Veterinary and Animal Science University in India, they have one division on animal climatology, wherein both research and extension aspects are being attended. However, in depth research is the need of the present decade, since little works have been done in the past on animal climatology.

Irrespective of weather elements, the heat stress due to the combination of temperature and relative humidity plays important role in affecting the productivity of animals. There is a range of thermal conditions within which animals are able to maintain a relatively stable body temperature by means of behavioral and physiological means. Heat stress results from the animal’s inability to dissipate sufficient heat to maintain homeothermy (Sejian et al., 2017). High ambient temperature, relative humidity and radiant energy compromise the ability of the animals to dissipate heat. As a result, there is an increase in body temperature, which in turn initiates compensatory and adaptive mechanisms to re-establish homeothermy and homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state that is optimal for functioning. Animals have a specific balanced or normal body temperature. When there is a problem with the internal functioning of animal body, this temperature may increase, signaling imbalance. As a result, body attempts to solve the problem and restore homeostasis for normal body temperature. These readjustments generally referred as adaptations and this is essential for survival of the animals.

The word ‘statistics’ has been derived from the Latin Word ‘Status’ which means ‘Political State’. The word statistics has been coined by Gottfried Aschenwall, a German Political Scientist. Ronald Aylmer Fisher is regarded as father of modern statistics. The word statistics has meaning both in plural and singular sense. In plural sense, it means quantitative/qualitative figures. For example, the area under food grains in different states of India, the production of guava in different states of India, germination percentage of seeds, etc.. In singular sense, it means as a subject i.e., method of dealing with the quantitative/qualitative information.

Statistics is defined as scientific method which deals with collection, organization presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. It is included under both science and arts. Statistics is used as a tool to obtain knowledge on other subjects of science.

The main arterial trunk that supplies blood to the hind limb is the external iliac artery. As this trunk passes down through different segments (regions) of the limb it is differently named according to that segment or the region. In the abdomen it is named as iliac, in the thigh region as femoral, in the leg region as tibial and popliteal and down that the metatarsal artery and lastly the digital.

External iliac artery

The external iliac artery arises from the abdominal aorta ventral to the fifth or sixth lumbar vertebra. It descends at the side of the pelvic inlet ventrally and caudally along the tendon of psoas minor, crosses the tendon, reaches the cranial border of the pubis, gains the space between the sartorius and pectineus muscles and then continues in the thigh (femoral region) as the femoral artery. In this course it is covered by peritoneum and is related laterally to the psoas minor, sartorius and iliacus muscles, medially to the common iliac vein and caudally to the external iliac vein. The following are the collateral branches of the external iliac artery.

1. Biotechnology arises from the field of Zymotechnology.

2. The word Biotechnology was coined by Karl ereky in 1919.

3. OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1981).

4. National Biotechnology Board - 1982 by GOI.

5. ICGEB International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Bio-technology (1988).

6. Cohen & Boyer - Recombinant DNA technology (1973).

7. Restriction enzymes are called as Molecular scissors.

8. Frederick Sanger - DNA Sequencing techniques.

9. Modified red glow zebra fish came on to the market in 2004.

10. Tissue culture Osowski 1914.

11. The term molecular biology was used by Warren weaver.