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HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

The Horticultural crops are majorly classified on the basis of its consumption and uses as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. Moreover, these crops have been further classified into various groups on the basis of their habitat, growth pattern, edapho-climatic requirements and uses. All branches of horticulture classified specifically as hereunder:

A Classification of fruits

1. Based on Climatic adaptability
   1. Tropical fruits: These fruit crops are grown in tropical climatic regions which are geographically located between the parallels of 23° 27' South (Tropic of Capricorn) and 23° 27' North (Tropic of the Cancer) of the equator. They are generally evergreen and very sensitive to cold. Eg. Mango, Pineapple, Banana, Papaya, Citrus, Sapota, Avocado etc.
   2. Sub-tropical fruits: Fruit crops are grown in between temperate and tropical climatic regions. They may be either deciduous or evergreen nature. Eg. Mango, guava, citrus, durian, jackfruit, bread fruit etc.

A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule. In broad sense, seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Seed technological point of view, seed may be sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). It also refers to propagating materials of healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, sets, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose. Quality seed, therefore, can be defined as the seed which fulfills the minimum requirements of getentic and physical purity, seed germination and vigour freedom from weeds and other crop seeds and other relevant seed standards.

Irrigation is one facet of the inputs which need to be carefully managed so that profits are maximized. Irrigation plays a major role in any agriculture crop production. One should be aware of different types of irrigation adapted in orchards or crop cultivation to become a successful grower. Irrigation is very important component of crop cultivation as sufficient moisture must be maintained in the soil for obtaining the optimum growth and good quality yield. The aim of irrigating a plant should be to wet the entire root zone without allowing any wastage of water beyond the root zone. The irrigation systems have to be properly devised so that the water requirements of the trees are met at the minimum expenditure without any wastage of water. Irrigation practices can be improved if a range of important factors like crop type, crop water requirements, climatic conditions, soil type, water quality, method of irrigation are taken into account.

Crop type

The type of horticultural crops grown influences irrigation practices. Annual vegetable and melon crops have high water requirement, hence irrigation management is extremely critical to their productivity during their relatively short life span (10-20 weeks). Perennial fruit crops tend to require less water and management, although critical, is not generally as critical as for annual crops.

Q.1 Systematic random sampling or systematic sampling, both are different sampling schemes.

Q.2 The pattern usually followed in selecting a systematic sample is a simple pattern involving a constant spacing of units in the sample.

Q.1 In addition to the assumption of ANOVA, the other point which is given due consideration by the statistician is “The stability of variance.”

Q.2 In any investigation, if it is possible to incorporate the “randomisation procedure” then it is customary to rely on “ Randomisation” to break up any “correlation among experimental errors”

Q.1 The most fundamental assumption to be followed by random variable for using the standard method (parametric statistic) or parametric inference is that the random variable follows normal distribution.

Q.2 The standard parametric techniques are not useful for estimating parameters and testing hypothesis about them.

Extraction is a process whereby the desired constituents of a plant are removed using a solvent. The primary ways for extraction of organic molecules of interest to biologists and medical investigators involve breaking open the cells. Cell rupturing is carried out in a variety of ways. The method used depends on the type of tissue used. For plant cells grown in cell suspension culture or for plant callus tissue, a French press or a sonicator can be used to break open the cell.

Animal husbandry is the most important economic activity in rural areas as livestock plays a vital role in the economy. Over 90 per cent of the milk production comes from small farmers, who are located in rural areas. Growing human population, increasing urbanisation, rising domestic incomes and changing lifestyles in the country have led to increasing demand for dairy products (Anita and John, 2001).

Market information

As defined by Philip Kotler, Marketing information system is continuing & interacting structure of people, equipment & procedure designed to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate, distribute pertinent, timely and accurate information for use by marketing decision makers, to improve their marketing planning, execution and control.

It is the job of collecting, interpreting and disseminating large variety of data which are needed for the smooth operation of marketing processes. In many countries Government agencies undertake this function and sometimes organisations such as chambers of commerce, board of traders etc. perform this function. The Directorate of Economics and Statistics and concerned state marketing departments collect data regarding a) quantity of various products produced in different areas, b) quantities of products held in storage, c) arrivals in various markets, d) prices prevailing in local, regional, national and international markets. The informative data so collected is disseminated through radio, television, news papers, weekly and monthly bulletins. Daily prices are published in most of the news papers. The informative marketing data is also collected through sales executives and from those personnel who are specially appointed as specialists by various trading firms.

Government role in marketing of milk

Ever since independence the dairy sector in India has been regulated. The government projects and programmes in place for enhancing dairy development include subsidies for developing infrastructure for milk processing and testing. The Clean Milk Production Programme is a centrally sponsored scheme that is being implemented by the State Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries with several objectives: i) the creation and strengthening of necessary infrastructure for the production of quality milk and milk products at the farm level up to the points of consumption; ii) improvement of milking techniques; and iii) training to enhance awareness on the importance of hygienic milk production. Several other rural development initiatives support dairying, such as through the District Rural Development Agency and women’s self help groups. An area of government support that has not been capitalized on so far is the investment in promoting the nutritional aspects of milk, particularly pasteurized milk versus loose milk.

Entrepreneur is a person who takes the responsibility of initiating and establishing an enterprise or an organisation under conditions of uncertainty.

Some of the essential qualities of entrepreneurs are as follows

1. Creativity
2. Passion
3. Motivation
4. Product or service knowledge
5. Ability to network
6. Self-confidence
7. Optimism
8. Vision
9. Goal mindset
10. Risk-taking
11. Persuasiveness
12. Decision-making
13. Tenacity
14. Money management
15. Adaptability

Introduction

The process of setting up a business is preceded by the decision to choose entrepreneurship as a career and identification of promising business ideas upon a careful examination of the entrepreneurial opportunities. Generation of ideas is not enough; the business ideas must stand the scrutiny from techno economic, financial and legal perspectives. That is, after the initial screening of the ideas that do not seem promising prima facie, you should conduct an in-depth examination of the chosen three-four before settling for the one where you would like to exert your time, money and energies. You should prepare a business plan that will serve as the road map for effective venturing, whether you may require institutional funding (in which case it is necessary to do so) or not. Setting up of new business enterprises is a very challenging task; you are likely to encounter many problems en route. It’s advisable to be aware of these problems.

Pulses are seeds of leguminous plants used as food. They produce dal rich in protein. The important pulse crops are greengram, blackgram, redgram, bengal gram, soybean, cowpea, peas, lentil and lathyrus. The total area under pulses in India is 29.81 m ha with a production of 25.42 m t and the productivity is 853 kg / ha. Pulses can grow both in rainfed and irrigated conditions.

Cowpea is a quick growing leguminous forage crop. It is usually grown mixed with cereal fodders and grasses to improve the nutritive value of the herbage. It contains 20 – 24 % crude protein, 43 - 49 % neutral detergent fibre, 34 – 37 % acid detergent fibre, 23– 25 % cellulose and 5 – 6 % hemicelluloses on dry matter basis. The digestibility of cowpea fodder is above 70%. Cowpea can be grown under partial shaded conditions. It is an excellent cover crop, which suppresses weeds and enriches the soil. Cowpea requires warm climate with good atmospheric humidity. It can be grown in kharif as well as in zaid season.

Fruits are an essential component of a human’s healthy diet. Fruits are used as a supplement to primary foods. When compared to grains, many fruits have far greater nutritional potential. The common fig is one of the most important and widely consumed fruits (Ficus carica).

Most traditional food processing techniques like boiling, cooling, freezing, and blanching are used in a home kitchen. But now-a-days, food processing and preservation industries combine these techniques with other processing operations by using different technical prospects. As a subset of traditional processing technologies, modern processing technologies include hot air sterilization, vacuum cooking and pulsed electric-field technology as well as high pressure treatment, extrusion, microwave processing, and pulsed electric field technology.

Lanolin, commonly known as Wool grease is primarily a lipid secretion from sebaceous glands of wool bearing animals. The role of Lanolin in nature is to protect wool and skin of animal from climate and the environment. It is an excellent emollient, self-emulsifying and dermatological safe for skin applications. Lanolin is a complex matrix since it is a mixture of high molecularweight esters of fatty acids with fatty alcohols, sterols, tri-terpene alcohols; diesters, long-chain alcohols & diols, long-chain fatty acids and hydroxy acids and is therefore difficult for effective matrix clean-up. Because of its water proofing and antimicrobial properties, lanolin is used mainly in cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications.

In India the problems of protein energy malnutrition, anemia, and vitamin A deficiency are more prevalent among children and adolescents (Udayasree, Manjula, & Sowjanya, 2013). To overcome these problems, the need of nutritional compositions rich foods came into existence. One of such foods which constitute the most significant attention of nutrients is “Spirulina”. Spirulina is a common name for supplements derived mainly from two Cyanobacteria species, i.e. Arthrospira maxima and Arthrosepira platensis, which are human and animal.

Drying is basically the unit operations which is used in many of the food industry nowadays. It can be desirably known as the process of removing moisture to relent a hard products. It is the transfer of energy source, mostly it derives heat from the outer environment to the dryer in which the food products is placed.

Jamun (Syzygium cuminii L. Skeels) is an evergreen tropical tree which belongs to family ‘Myrtaceae’. It is commonly known as java plum, jambul, jamun, black plum, faux pistachier, Indian blackberry, doowet and jambolan. Jamun is native to the subtropical Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Australia. Its fruits are delicious and have great importance in folk medicine (Ayyanar and Subash, 2012).

Studies have shown that modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), and controlled atmosphere storage have the ability to delay quality losses and thus extend shelf life of fresh or minimally processed or fresh-cut produce (Church 1994; Gil et al. 1996a, b; Lee et al. 1995). Modified atmosphere packaging of fruits can result in reduction of respiratory activity, delay in softening and ripening and a reduced incidence of various physiological disorders and pathogenic infestations (Artés 1993).

Cellulose is a homopolymer of β (1–4) glucose linkage. It is the most abundant polymer present on the surface of the earth, which is mainly produced by the vascular plants (Sharma et al., 2019; Dayal et al., 2013; Sheykhnazari et al., 2011). Cellulose obtained from higher vascular plants has been employed for making textile and papers.

Developing a nutraceutical or functional food is becoming mandatory as looking at the current nutritional status of the population over the world. Nutraceutical foods are proven to cause several health benefits to people. Hence the basic aim behind developing the nutraceutical chocolate bar was to fulfill the nutritional demands and provide some additional benefits to people. The product mainly contains two key ingredients that are, Drumstick (Morings oleifera) which has the most qualities to call a Superfood” and Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) which is referred to as “Mother of all grains”.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a part of “Chenopodiaceae” family. Up to 250 species of Chenopodium have been identified to date. Quinoa is a South American grain that has been farmed in the Andes for thousands of years, particularly in Peru and Bolivia. It is considered as a sacred plant because of its abundance in protein and essential amino acids (Jancurova et al., 2009). Quinoa is distinguished by its excellent adaptability to a diverse variety of land and environmental variables. Both leaves as well as the grains are considered as the edible parts. However, the quinoa grains have been extensively studied and economically explored (Rocha, 2008).

Millets are essential grains that help developing nations in Asia and Africa’s semi-arid tropics, particularly India, Nigeria, and Niger, achieve food and nutrition security.They are grown on soils that are usually too weak for any other crop to grow. They can withstand drought, minimal fertiliser treatment, and temperature swings better than other cereal crops, and their short growing season makes them exceptional. Millets are all-season crops that can be grown all year and provide several security benefits (food, feed, health, nutrition, livelihood, and the environment), making them the most cost-effective agricultural security crop. Sorghum (Great millet), Bajra (Pearl millet), small millets such as Korra (Foxtail millet), Ragi (Finger millet), Kodo millet, Proso millet, Little millet and Barnyard millet are all important millet crops grown in India.

Frost is a thermodynamic phenomenon that occurs in the atmosphere, especially under subtropical and temperate conditions during winter. To understand the horticultural implications of this meteorological event, it is necessary to understand the frost related terms and jargon, first. Some of the common terms used here in this book are described hereunder:

During winters, many of the evergreen species growing in the subtropics suffer chilling or freezing damage and the extent of damage however, depends greatly on their ability to perceive the low temperature stimulus and the capacity to modify the physiological or biochemical functioning at the molecular level;

Despite the tremendous advances in agriculture, the agrarian output is still weather and climate-dependent. Frost or low-temperature stress is a single weather-related phenomenon that causes losses greater than any other environmental or biological hazard. As the plants are immobile, they are bound to undergo this stress and suffer damage under natural condition. For avoiding and managing the adverse effects of frost-induced freezing in plants, a reliable early warning/prediction of intensity and duration of frost is necessary.

Augmentation strategies are generally used as a way to improve the effectiveness of passive or active frost protection methods. As the intensity of the frost is quite variable and sporadic in nature, simple application of the protection methods is not always helpful in giving adequate protection against freezing stress. 

Diseases of bladder and urethra are most commonly reported in farm animals than diseases of kidney. Knowledge of the physiology of the urinary secretion
and excretion is required to understand the urinary tract diseases. The functions of kidneys are to excrete the end products of tissue metabolism except CO2
and to maintain homeostasis with respect to fluid and solutes including acid base balance by selective excretion of these substances. The kidney maintains
homeostasis by varying volume of water and the concentration of solutes in the urine.

• Harmony is the principle of landscaping.

• Texture is an important element of landscaping.

• Blue is a primary colour.

• Green in a secondary colour.

• Garden furniture is a tangible item.

Oxygen therapy has been in vogue for more than century and it is key component in cardiorespiratory care both in human and veterinary medicine. It is recommended in all hypoxemic humans, dogs and cats (peripheral oxygen saturation < 90% to 94% or PaO2 < 70 mm Hg) presented with acute heart failure or respiratory diseases. But oxygen therapy in normoxemic subjects has remained controversial as some studies have shown detrimental effect (increased level of reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, reduction in coronary blood flow and myocardial oxygen consumption) of oxygen therapy in subjects with normal oxygen level.

The internal combustion (I.C) engines are functioning on open cycle wherin the air is taken from the atmosphere and the exhaust gases are sent back in the atmosphere. The sequence of operation in a 4-stroke petrol and diesel engine involves Suction compression expansion and exhaust. The precise investigation of I.C engines are very complex due to open cycle system, the working fluid enter and leaves at different condition, quality of fuel and its combustion which make the task more difficult.

Hydraulic pumps are the devices utilized to transfer pressure energy to liquids at the expense of electrical energy. The electrical energy is transferred to a motor which converts it into mechanical work and a pump is coupled to the shaft. The pump converts the mechanical energy to hydraulic or potential energy. 

Machine: It is a device capable to doing work on application of some effort. Work done by machine is to raise load or to lower load or to do some other types of work like rotation of shaft.

Loose smut of wheat occurs worldwide but is more abundant and serious in humid and sub – humid regions. In India, this disease is found in all wheat growing areas but the incidence is generally more in comparatively cooler and moist parts of north India than south India. The yield loss may go up to 30% due to this disease.

The disease was fi rst reported in Java in 1893 and is prevalent in all sugarcane growing countries. In India the disease occurs in an epiphytotic form in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar during 1939-1940 and 1946-1947 and cause severe damage that threatened the existence of sugar industries.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is indigenous to the tropical forests of Western Ghats of South India. The crop is grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Assam.

Browning is due to boron deficiency caused. In general, boron deficiency symptoms in the formation of the curd, the plant externally visible. In the early stages, immersion in water and curd in the stem region of the surface occurs. As plant growth, into the hollow, soaked in water covers the cavity inner wall tissue. In the absence of progressive steps, areas of brown or pink color are visible, and hence, it is also called brown or reddish-brown or dark brown rot affected by the bitter taste. D

Problems are low fruiting / non fruiting / irregular fruiting in the country’s litchi farming area. The potential of bear litchi has been identified as variety, although some of the bearing terminals in the present year will be more active in the next year (70-95 percent).

BNHS is one of the oldest scientific organizations in India, working for nature conservation since 1883. Our primary goal is to spread awareness about nature through science-based research, conservation advocacy, education, scientific publications, nature tours, and other programs. 

Elephants are the simple stomached animals and colon is associated with digestion, predominantly. Elephants are the herd animals (gregarious in nature) and belong to the matriarchal groups (Leader of herd is usually a cow elephant)

ìMetabolic Diseasesî mean the diseases that occur due to the ìimbalance between the rate of input of dietary nutrients and the ìoutput of productsî (product like new born, milk for young one etc.) and lead to the occurrence of metabolic derangements in the affected wild animal species.

Use of modern reproductive biotechnologies or assisted reproductive techniques (ART) include in general artificial insemination, embryo transfer/sexing, in vitro fertilization, gamete/embryo micromanipulation, semen sexing, genome resource banking, and somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning) in conservation programs for endangered mammalian species. The biotechnologies of these kinds generally permit more and more offspring to be obtained from selected parents to ensure genetic diversity and may reduce the interval between generations.

Birds are extremely vulnerable to handling (even injection related events) stress and hence, chemically immobilize for a detailed clinical examination or intensive sampling procedures).

Chemical restraint is a form of animal restraint technique in which a drug or a chemical is used to restrict the movement (walking, running, aggression) of an animal or sometimes just to sedate or to calm down the animal. Chemical restraint is a safe and effective capture method when applied correctly and with due precaution.

Rapeseed and mustard are termed in different names in different places. Sarson and toria (lahi) are generally termed as rape seeds. Rai, raya or laha are termed as mustard. Rape seed and mustard belongs to the species Brassica of the family Cruciferae. It is an annual plant or biennial herbs. Rape seed and mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India.

Sunflower was introduced as an oil seed crop in India in 1967. The crop is now widely cultivated in all parts of India and in any type of situation. Sunflower belongs to Compositae family and the cultivated species is Helianthus annus spp. macrocarpus. Apart from the edible oil species, there are non-oily types, other edible forms and ornaments. Helianthus tuberosus gives the edible tubers.

Bakery products have a long history of development. The process for the preparation of foods via dry heat treatments in an oven is defined as baking. Baking of foods can also be achieved by using hot ashes or on hot stones. Bakery products include biscuits, bread, cookies, rolls, cakes, pasteries, pies, rolls, doughnuts, etc. These products are mainly composed of raw materials such as wheat flour, water, yeast, salt, and various other ingredients. Bakery foods provide various nutrients that are beneficial for human health. Among bakery products, bread,biscuits and cakes are some of the popularly consumed items.

India had fourfold increase in population from 0.3 billion to 1.34 billion and registered a fivefold increase in food grain production from 50 million tons to
285 million tons in 2018 (Paroda, 2020).