eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Plant diseases caused by microbial plant pathogens and sub microscopic entities including virus and viroids induce both quantitative and qualitative losses of high magnitude in yields. The extent of loss may range from slight to 100% depending on the susceptibility/resistant level of the cultivars and prevailing favourable environmental conditions (Narayanasamy, 2011). With the introduction of high yielding cultivars, adoption of modern production techniques such as high input agronomic practices, changes in cultural practices, free movement of planting materials and changes in weather conditions over the years have led to increase in pest and disease problems, several of which have become major constraints in their successful cultivation (Gupta and Thind, 2006). The challenge is how to feed the growing population by producing more on a stagnant or shrinking landscape; with lesser input cost and with lesser hazards to the eco-system. The detection and management of diseases prior to economic loss will help to minimize the yield loss of the crops. Physical and chemical techniques have been applied either alone or in combination with certain cultural practices to enhance the effectiveness of reducing pathogen inoculums and consequent reduction in disease incidence.

The term essential element was proposed by Arnon and Stout (1939).They concluded three criteria must be met for an element to be considered essential. These criteria are:

1.A plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in the absence of the mineral element.

2.The function of the element must not be replaceable by another mineral element.

3.The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.

The number of elements considered essential for the growth of higher plants now varies from 16 to 20 or more, depending upon the definition of essentiality. Other scientists such as Nicholas (1961) believed that an element should be considered essential if its addition enhances plant growth even though it merely substitutes for one of the 16 elements that Arnon declares to be essential. For example, sodium can substitute in plant nutrition for some potassium and vanadium for some molybdenum, Nicholas would consider both sodium and vanadium as essential, but Arnon would not. On the basis of the criteria used, Arnon specifies 16 elements and Nicholas 20 elements as being essential for the growth of higher plants. Three other debated nutrients are nickel (urea transformations), cobalt (N₂ fixation) and silicon. These criteria are important guidelines for plant nutrition but exclude beneficial mineral elements. Beneficial elements are those that can compensate for toxic effects of other elements or may replace mineral nutrients in some other less specific function such as the maintenance of osmotic pressure. The omission of beneficial nutrients in commercial production could mean that plants are not being grown to their optimum genetic potential but are merely produced at a subsistence level.

Pituitary
Herlant (1960) Pituitary Stain I
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin or Zenker formol and process for routine paraffin sections
Protocol
1) Deparaffinise the paraffin sections with two changes (10 minutes each) of xylene.
2) Descending grades of ethanol from absolute to 50% solution (2 minutes each).
3) Hydrate the sections with water 5 minutes (remove HgCl2 if present).
4) Stain in erythrosine for 5 minutes.
5) Rinse briefly in distilled water.
6) Stain in Mallory II for 5-10 minutes.
7) Rinse briefly in distilled water.
8) Stain in acid Alizarine blue for 5-10 minutes.
9) Rinse briefly in distilled water.
10) Treat with phosphormolybdic acid for 5-10 minutes.
11) Rinse briefly in distilled water.
12) Differentiate in 70% ethanol

Pomegranate is one of the popular fruit crops of tropical and sub tropical in India and enjoys high reputation for its dietetic and medicinal properties. The fruit is native of Iran and is extensively cultivated in Mediterranean countries like Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan. It is also grown to a lesser extent in Myanmar, China, Japan, India and U.S.A.

The area under pomegranate cultivation has increased several folds in the recent past after the introduction of soft seeded varieties. Out of 30,000 hectares under this crop in India, Maharashtra state alone grows over eighty per cent of area with an average production of 8000 kg ha^-1 (Mote et al.,1992). The export of pomegranate fruits was 1790.3 tonnes in 1991-92 valued at rupees 215.3 lakhs which was more than two fold over the previous year’s export earnings (Chadha, 1994). The utility of the crop is gaining importance and at present new orchards of pomegranate are being planted on large acreage. Because of its versatile adaptability, hard nature, low maintenance cost, steady and high yields, fine table and therapeutic values, better keeping quality and very good export potential, there is greater scope for extending its area and increasing the production especially in the hot and semi arid regions of India.

In pomegranate, market preference is for the attractiveness of the fruit which are exhibited through better size, colour with bold and deep coloured arils besides possessing high juice-content. However consumers prefers the softness of the arils with low acidity. While, there are number of cultivated types available with these desirable characters, there are hardly cultivar having a combination of all or atleast a majority of them. Pomegranate improvement work, therefore has to be oriented towards the production of soft seeded type with other desirable characters (Phadnis, 1974).

The term pesticide includes fungicides, bactericides, nematicides, rodenticides, soil fumigants and herbicides. They cover a wide range of formulations: chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, metallic salts, acetic acid derivatives, thiocarbamates etc. They all have deleterious effects on humans, domestic animals, wildlife and plants.

Indicators are the natural or synthetic chemical compounds that are used to detect the equivalence point in a volumetric analysis where unknown compound in a solution form is quantitatively estimated with the help of a known standard solution. The equivalence point, also known as the stoichiometric end point, is the point or stage of a titration reaction where the equivalent amount of the reacting substances are mixed together, and this point is identified by monitoring the rate of change in pH, conductivity, flow of current, adsorption, fluorescence, changing of solution colour, occurrence or disappearance of turbidity, flocculation or deflocculation, etc.

Centrifugation is a technique that promotes accelerated settling of particles in a solid-liquid mixture by the application of centrifugal force. The device that accelerates the separation with the help of centrifugal force is known as ‘Centrifuge’. The centrifuge consists of a fixed base or frame and a rotating part in which the mixture is placed and is then spun at high speed.

1.1 Introduction

The word ‘horticulture’ was first used in 1600’s, and is derived from two Latin words, ‘hortus’(garden) and ‘cultûra’(cultivation), and it means ‘the culture (cultivation) of garden plants’. Relf (1992) defined “horticulture as an applied science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, nuts, tubers, aromatic and medicinal plants, plantation crops, mushrooms and ornamental plants which include shrubs, flowering plants and turfs stimulating minds, spirits and emotions of individuals, enriching health and wellness of communities, and linking human beings to nature and its landscaped exteriors for wellness and wellbeing”. Fruits and vegetables are nourishing and protective foods. It has been recognized that fruits are a rich source of antioxidants which protect us from dreadful diseases. Vegetables and fruits contain vitamin E, K, and  carotene in addition to minerals like zinc, copper and manganese. To meet the ever-increasing demand of the country for fruits, vegetables, tubers, spices, flowers, ornamentals etc., we must strive hard to deliver better cultivars in as many aspects as possible to the society so that human beings will be in sound health physically as well as mentally. To achieve this goal plant breeding in general, and horticultural plant breeding in particular will come to our help.

Electrophoresis is an important separation technique for the charged molecules. Biologically important molecules, such as amino acids, peptides, proteins nucleotides, nucleic acids which carry electrical charge as they possess certain ionizable functional groups may be separated and identified from a mixture with the help of this technique. Some compounds that are non-polar in nature and do not possess any charge may be transformed to charge carrying derivatives. Thus, phosphate derivatives of carbohydrates may be separated and characterized utilizing electrophoretic techniques.

Abstract

Solid Waste Management (SWM) has become a significant global concern, specifically for developing countries like India because of increasing population, rapid urbanization and high rate of municipal solid waste generation. Bio-composting and anaerobic digestion are the methods majorly used for solid waste management. Present chapter comprises detailed information on methods, microbiology involved and pros and cons of these methods to provide the detail information of solid waste management processes to the readers. Variable nature of substrates are available for bio-composting process. It includes sludge from effluent treatment plant (ETP), sewage treatment plant (STP) and bio-toilets, municipal solid waste, food waste and garden waste etc. Nutritional content, carbon /nitrogen (C/N) ratio of the substrate, available space and cost of the process are the main factors that affect selection method for waste management. Anaerobic digestion is the preferred method of solid waste management in comparison to other processes of composting due to methane generation as biogas and bioconversion of organic compounds to manure.

Despite its existence and continued use over many centuries, and its popularity and extensive use during the last decade, traditional medicine has not been officially recognized in most countries. Consequently, education, training and research in this area have not been accorded due attention and support. The quantity and quality of the safety and efficacy data on traditional medicine are far from sufficient to meet the criteria needed to support its use worldwide. The reasons for the lack of research data are due to not only to health care policies, but also to a lack of adequate or accepted research methodology for evaluating traditional medicine235.

The statement from General Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicines (World Health Organization, 2000) highlights the need for consensuous in addressing the problems related to the quality of botanical drugs, which ultimately is a critical determinant of safety and efficacy of medicine. Further, the distribution and widespread sale of adulterated, misbranded, spurious botanical drug products and marked increase in misleading health claims of these products demands proper regulations on botanical medicine to protect public health236. Considering these two issues development of parameters for quality control standardization and regulatory norms for controlling the growing business of botanicals is a big task. Various regulatory authorities, research organizations and botanical drug manufacturers are constantly contributing to developing guiding principles addressing issues related to quality, safety and efficacy237. In this chapter we have highlighted problems associated with quality control of the botanicals and tried to guide a way towards a globally acceptable quality standard.

1.1 Introduction to Numerical Method

There are three types by which problem / system can be solved and are analytical methods, graphical methods and numerical methods.

Analytical methods: This approach or methods are used to find the exact solution of simple problems / systems rather than complex systems. It provides the behavior and characteristic features of a particular system, but can only be used for systems which can be approximated through use of linear models. Another limitation is in the case of practical problems, consisting of complex and nonlinear equations / processes, as analytical methods cannot handle properly.

Graphical methods: This approach or methods are used to find the approximate solution of problems / systems through drawing of graphs for each of the equation and then check for the intersection of graphs. Intersection of graphs represents solution to system of equations, and no interaction or parallel lines of graphs represents no solution. This is not useful because of non-precise nature due to graphs drawing through hands, which also makes the process tedious. Another limitation is its viability for problems involving three or lesser dimensions.

Numerical methods: This approach or methods are used to find the approximate solution of problems / systems in a simpler way involving a large quantity of long arithmetic calculations, as compared to analytical methods. Numerical methods are the techniques by which mathematical problems are formulated to find the solution through arithmetic operations.

1. INTRODUCTION

According to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (1968) food is “an article that provides taste, aroma or nutritive value”. The term 'health food' is generally used to describe foods that are considered to be beneficial to health beyond a normal diet required for human nutrition. Though, the term is not precisely defined by any regulatory agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) however, “Health food” is sometimes used as an umbrella term encompassing natural foods, organic foods, whole foods, and sometimes dietary supplements or may also refer to functional foods. The use of foods for promoting health and relieving symptoms is as old as the practice of phyto-medicine for treating or preventing various types of illness and have been documented in Hippocratic and Vedic texts and the canons of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Therefore, “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”, quoted by Hippocrates about 2,500 years ago, is certainly the tenet of today which is receiving overwhelming interest. In the recent years, rapid urbanization, industrialization, increase in per capita income etc. in developing countries like India, have resulted in dramatic lifestyle changes leading to lifestyle related diseases like coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer and hypertension. The transition from a traditional to modern lifestyle, consumption of diets rich in fat and calories combined with a high level of mental stress has compounded the problem further.

Negotiation is a communication and problem-solving process built on a broad foundation of skills and knowledge. It is also one of the most popular and effective means of resolving conflicts and misunderstandings. Negotiation is back and forth communication designed to reach agreement while leaving the other side intact and positive.

Basic principle, without which negotiation is impossible

Successful negotiation requires compromise from both sides. Both parties must gain something, and both parties must lose something. You must be prepared to give something up to which you believe you are entitled. You cannot expect to defeat your opponent or “win” a negotiation by either the power of your negotiating skills or the compelling force of your logic. This is not to say that good negotiating ability is irrelevant. In most cases, a range of possible outcomes exists. A skilled negotiator often can achieve a settlement near the top of the range.

Introduction 
Having explored the fundamental principles and various types of elementary crop growth models in the previous chapter, we now arrive at a pivotal juncture in their journey from theoretical constructs to practical, dependable tools. It‘s one thing to conceptualize and build a mathematical representation of crop growth; it‘s quite another to ensure that this model accurately reflects realworld plant behavior and can be reliably used for predicting outcomes and informing critical agricultural decisions. This chapter, Calibration, Validation, Verification, and Sensitivity of Elementary Crop Models,” will guide you through the indispensable processes that establish a model‘s credibility and utility. We will delve into the systematic steps involved in calibration, where we meticulously fine-tune a model‘s parameters to accurately reflect a specific crop‘s response within a particular environment, effectively adapting the general model to local conditions. Following this, we will explore validation, a rigorous process of independently testing the model‘s predictive power against datasets not used during calibration, ensuring its robustness and generalizability. Beyond accuracy, we will also cover verification, which confirms the model‘s logical consistency and computational correctness, ensuring that its internal workings are sound. Finally, we will examine sensitivity analysis, a crucial technique for understanding how changes in various input factors—especially weather parameters—or internal model coefficients influence the model‘s outputs, thereby revealing the model‘s critical drivers and potential vulnerabilities. These four processes are far more than mere technical formalities; they form the bedrock upon which the utility, accuracy, and trustworthiness of any crop model, no matter how elementary, are firmly built. By engaging with these essential steps, we can transform theoretical frameworks into powerful instruments capable of supporting sustainable agricultural planning, risk management, and adaptive strategies in a dynamic climate.

Introduction

Food security is an agricultural issue that has political connotations in the world and more strikingly so in the developing world, where systems of governance has assumed and lost power on this issue. Agriculture not only contributes to the overall growth of the economy but also provides a vital livelihood base, employment and food security to the majority of the country’s population. Recent food price hikes have drawn the attention of the world’s policy-makers and news media to food security which triggered a wide variety of policy responses throughout the world. It threatens the food crisis and livelihood of millions of peoples suffering from hunger and poverty.

Key facts

    
•    The climate change is likely to affect millions of people both directly (via increased deaths, disease and injury from heatwaves, floods, storms, fires and droughts) and indirectly (through changes in the water, air, food quality and quantity and ranges of vectors, such as mosquitoes, water-borne pathogens).
    
•    Recent observed climate change related effects include: (a) an increase in heat related deaths across the globe (Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal, Switzerland, UK and USA; (b) spread of vector- and rodent-borne diseases such as malaria (Africa, India) and dengue and (c) increase in food poisoning (New Zealand).
    
•    Heatwaves can cause adverse health effects such as heat cramps, fainting, heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Human deaths due to heatwaves are associated with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and in 2003 in Europe 70,000 deaths were recorded from heatwaves alone.
    
•    Projections : (a) cold temperature is expected to become less frequent, while heat waves will become more frequent; (b) increases in heat related deaths and illness across the globe including Australia, Germany, Portugal, UK, and USA;  (c) malaria zone may expand in Australia, Africa (highlands), India and  260-320 million more people will be affected by malaria by 2080;  (d) dengue area is likely to increase as climate would be more suitable and by 2085, about 6 billion people will be at risk of contracting dengue fever including Australia and New Zealand; (e) diarrhoeal disease may increase with temperature increase; and (f) cholera outbreaks may rise as a result of more plankton blooms providing nutrients for Vibrio cholerae.

Introduction

Indian horticulture sector contributes about 38% to the agriculture Gross Value Added (GVA) making very significant contribution to the Indian economy. Apart from ensuring nutritional security of the nation, it provides alternate rural employment opportunities, diversification in farm activities, and enhanced income to farmers. India is currently producing about 283.5 million tones of horticulture produce which has surpassed the food grain production, that too from much less area (24.2 mha. for horticulture against 125 mha. for food grains). Productivity of horticulture crops is much higher compared to productivity of food grains (11.96 tones/ha against 2 tones/ha.). India has emerged as world leader in the production of a variety of fruits like mango and banana and is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables. Besides, India has maintained its dominance in the production of spices, coconut and cashewnut. Among the new crops, kiwi, gherkins, kinnow, date palm and oil palm have been successfully introduced for commercial cultivation in the country. Launch of National Horticulture Mission has spurred the production and productivity of horticultural crops. Productivity of horticultural crops has increased by about 32% between 2004-05 and 2015-16. Increase in demand for horticultural produce due to greater health awareness, rising income, export demands and increasing population poses the challenge for further increasing the production and productivity of horticultural crops. The issue of climate change has thrown up greater uncertainties and risks, further imposing constraints on production systems. Therefore, continuous crop improvement programmes are the way forward for sustainable fruit production with greater opportunity of value addition of surplus produce.

Introduction

Fermentation of food dates back to ancient practice of wine making. Fermented foods reflect culture and tradition of folklore and emphasis their close association with nature. Various methods employed for fermenting foods aimed in food preservation to reduce wastage; however lactic acid fermentation enhanced nutrition content and improved organoleptic properties. Experimental evidences on benefits on health and wellness on consumption of fermented foods are being reported. Fermentation process used for preparation of indigenous or traditional foods often depend entirely on natural microflora on the surface of raw material and containers used; Practices of fermenting foods are passed on as traditional know how to generations as a legacy. The fermented food manufacturers rely on commercial starter cultures, and highly reliant on indigenous materials as microbial collections are unique and highly variable according to region and products. Therefore, isolation of novel organisms, development of newer products and interactions are being explored using variety of fermented foods obtained through traditional processes

Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests such as insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.