eChapters

Introduction

Cucurbits, belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae are among the most ancient cultivated plants. The term cucurbit was coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey for cultivated species of Cucurbitaceae. Other vernaculars applied to the family and several of its members are ‘gourd’, ‘melon’, ‘cucumber’, ‘squash’ and ‘pumpkin’. The Cucurbitaceae consists of two well defined sub families, eight tribes representing varying degrees of circumscriptive cohesiveness and about 118 genera and 825 species (Jeffrey, 1990). It is mostly tropical and sub tropical in distribution and only a few species occur in temperate regions. Some are semi desert or saprophytic in nature. The Indian sub continent is considered to be the centre of origin for a number of wild and cultivated crops. Chakravorty (1982) reported that 36 genera and 100 species of cucurbits are found in India. Cucurbits are cultivated in 8.5 m ha area in world giving a production of 17.9 mt. While in India a total of 4.5 mt cucurbits are produced from an area of 0.42 m ha area (FAO, 2004).

Cucurbitaceae is one of the most genetically diverse groups of plants in the plant kingdom. As a family and as individual crop, cucurbits epitomize adaptive differentiation and evolutionary divergence. Not only may cultivars within a crop vary significantly in their characteristics, but the same cultivar grown in distinct areas can have different needs in response to disparate local growing conditions. Cultures and ethnic groups may have different cultivar preference and horticultural practices, which also increase morphological diversity within a crop.

Cucurbits are of tremendous economic importance as food plants. They are extensively grown in mixed cropping of more than one kind in long and meandering river beds. Of various improvements approaches possible, breeding of superior pure lines and hybrid cultivars of cucurbits utilizing locally adopted land races are the most important methods which will have far reaching impact on increasing the production and productivity of cucurbits.

Introduction

Spices have played a very important role in shaping the history of human culture and civilization. Spices condiments and aromatic plants were the first articles traded by ancient people. These prompted the foreigners to the land of spices. Among spices, seed spices is a group well distributed over different agro-climatic regions in India covering major part in semi-arid to arid region largely in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The other states where one or more of seed spices grown are Haryana, Punjab, M.P., Bihar, U.P., West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The seed spices are grown in different parts of the world covering mainly Mediterranean region, South Europe and Asia. These crops were introduced to India from Mediterranean and Central Asian region, perhaps a long time ago. Today India enjoys the position of largest producer and exporter in the world for these crops. The country is bestowed with immensely rich land races diversity in seed spices crops. Much of the country’s agro-biodiversity is in the custody of farming community who followed age old farming systems. However the land races are being lost due to expansion of agriculture production in the frontier areas or replacement with the improved cultivars. Hence, scientific management of these valuable resources on different dimensions of activities in India viz. survey and collection, characterization, evaluation, documentation and conservation has assumed prime importance today. Out of the total 20 seed spices grown in India the ten are prominent. These important seed spices are divided into major and minor group of seed spices. The crops covered as major seed spices are coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek, whereas, ajowan, dill, nigella, celery and anise constitute minor group. The semi-arid to arid region is considerably rich in plant biodiversity of seed spices and it is required to conserve the natural wealth of these crops. The increasing loss of plant diversity owing to numerous natural and manmade causes calls for immediate efforts for its collection and safeguard.

In India, during the early days, guava plants were generally propagated by seeds from limited varieties available with nurserymen and pomologists. The seedling population obtained by open pollination gave rise to considerable variation in the form and size of fruit, the nature and flavour of pulp, seediness and other morphological characters such as spreading or erect growth habit of trees (Naik, 1949). Cheema et al., (1954) observed all the cultivars of guava to be highly heterozygous. Commercial producers utilized the variation thus obtained for selection of desirable genotypes and propagated them vegetatively. Assessment of genetic diversity and relationship among Psidium spp was carried out by Sharma et al (2007). They observed a high genetic similarity between Chinese guavas grouped with Psidium guajava cultivars. It has been observed that only a few named varieties are under cultivation. Most of these varieties suffer from one defect or the other. Hence, guava improvement by breeding was started mainly with the following objectives for developing new cultivars:
i) dwarf plant habit suitable for high density planting
ii) fruits with uniform shape, size, good colour, firm and thick pulp, good aroma, few and soft seeds, high TSS and high pectin
iii) long shelf life
iv) resistance to Fusarium wilt
15.1 Major breeding methods used
Plant introduction- Most of the guava varieties have evolved as selections from seedling variants. Variability has come about because of open pollination from highly heterozygous parents. Several introductions of promising genotypes have been made in guava growing countries. In India, many introductions made from Hawaii, Brazil, Thailand, etc. are being cultivated and used in breeding programmes. Similarly, introductions of Indian cultivars like Allahabad Safeda and Sardar have given excellent results in other parts of the world (Gonzaga et al, 1999). Although introduction is a potential tool in

Tomato varieties produced 50% in plastic house cover more than what they produce in open air (Diez et al., 1985). Nevertheless this production increase is not, by itself the reason for the use of protected cultivation which requires higher expenses. The key factor is the cost increase of final product obtained during off-season, which created an interesting margin in spite of high production costs. The effect of cost of seed in total cost is negligible, which permitted the use of hybrid seed. The new hybrids have brought about production increases which can be calculated to be over 50% more than what the greenhouse varieties produced with the cost of hybrid seed giving an effect on total production costs of only 6-7%. So that under these circumstances, production increase associated with hybrids is certainly very advantageous, apart form other benefits to be derived from hybrids.

Success of AI programme depends on fertility of bulls used for semen production. If infertile bulls are selected in semen station for production of semen doses, large population of cows inseminated with such doses is affected. Therefore, the breeding bulls or bulls to be used for frozen semen production should be selected carefully keeping in view genetic potential, disease condition, reproductive health, libido and semen production potential of the bull. The emphasis should not only be on elimination of bulls with questionable or unsatisfactory potential, but also on induction of bulls with good semen production potential into the semen station. 

The following aspects should be taken into consideration while performing a breeding soundness examination of bulls:

The chapter “Breeding Strategies for Disease Resistance” provides a comprehensive exploration of addressing disease resistance through various breeding strategies. In an era of escalating global challenges and climate change, where crop failures can lead to food shortages and economic instability, the chapter delves into strategies that integrate traditional breeding methods with cutting-edge genetic advancements to strengthen plants against pathogens. Understanding the genetics of plant–pathogen interactions holds profound importance. This knowledge elucidates the mechanisms underpinning disease development and offers insights into developing targeted strategies for disease management. By deciphering the genetic details governing host susceptibility and pathogen virulence, we gain the ability to engineer crops with enhanced resistance, reducing reliance on chemical interventions and promoting sustainable agriculture. The chapter further discusses the mechanism of disease resistance in plants which involves inherent genetic traits that identify pathogen molecules, triggering a rapid defense response called “gene-for-gene” interaction. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR), where a local pathogen attack prompts the entire plant to boost its defense preparedness. Signaling molecules like salicylic acid play a pivotal role. Additionally, plants employ chemical defenses via secondary metabolites and leverage beneficial microorganisms to stimulate immune pathways. This coordinated approach empowers plants to effectively counter pathogens and elevate disease resistance. In this chapter, we discuss breeding strategies for disease resistance that encompass a range of vital approaches. Traditional methods involve selecting and breeding plants with inherent resistance traits and incorporating genes from related species to enhance defenses.

Introduction

In-spite of environmental, bio-physical and resource constraints in most parts of Rajasthan, the state can be classified into three distinct agro-climatic zones namely hot arid, semi-arid and sub-humid  from horticultural perspective. These diverse zones have excellent vegetable production potential with wide range of crops, varied opportunities and resource utilization. The extremes of high (March–October) and low (December–January) temperature conditions together with associated abiotic stresses in the hot arid and semi-arid regions limit the choice of crops and their genotypes, quality of produce and productivity. Vegetable exploitation with adaptive and native crop-plant species is generally found to be potential and stable under arid to semi-arid agro-climatic conditions of the state that receive 150–650 mm of rainfall and having abiotic stresses due to climatic variations, drought, frost, hot and cold winds, soil and water quality.

Our natural ecology comprises insects, which are known to have both advantageous and detrimental consequences. Insect pests are the main obstacles in maximizing agricultural crop output, since they directly or indirectly result in significant crop loss. The intricate relationship that phytophagous insects have with their hosts is the result of a protracted and ongoing evolutionary process. Because of this, it is impossible to completely eradicate them, but there is a hopeful fix for this issue, i.e., utilizing insect resistant crop varieties. Insect-resistant kinds are those that, with the same starting infestation level and similar environmental conditions, yield considerably higher yields of high-quality fruit than susceptible varieties. By boosting yield and reducing pesticide use, these varieties had an enormous economic benefit. There are a number of highly effective insect resistance mechanisms that the targeted insect pest cannot simply overcome. This chapter discusses various breeding strategies such as introduction, selection, and hybridization as well as some modern breeding approaches that have been used to develop many insect-resistant crop varieties that have significantly improved the world’s food supply, by reducing carbon inputs through reduced pesticide use. By expressing bacterial endotoxins and producing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops, genetic engineering also aids in the production of insect-resistant crops. Furthermore, RNA interference (RNAi) and genome editing by CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR associated 9) offer new avenues for the production of insect-resistant crops.

It is imperative that the country should develop strategic planning so that available resources in different agro ecological zones of the country to exploited judiciously and utilize sustainably for further enhancing the productivity of cattle and buffaloes. Therefore, agroclimatic region and animal production system-based breeding policy strategies with a focus on large scale implementations of improved animal genetics and breeding innovations by development organizations with active participation of farmers/breeders are discussed here. Before developing sustainable breeding strategies for improving the productivity performance of a particular breed/genetic group of animal population in a given agro-climatic region, it is necessary to have a comprehensive details of population size of breed along with analysis of existing activities such as farmer/breeder’s perceptions and socio-economic levels, agriculture and livestock production systems, available feed and fodder resources, animal genetic resources, their production potentials and utilization pattern, breeding organizations, infrastructure and development facilities . The Quinquennial All India Livestock Census contains information on the herd/flock structure, sex, age, etc. and it does not reflect the factual situation about the status of breeds in terms of their population. Hence, the actual population of each breed and their geographical distribution is not clearly known. The correct picture about these breeds would be available only when breed-wise census of the livestock is carried out and status and performance of breeds are surveyed in their natural habitat and the same has been initiated in the recent survey . In the back ground of the collected and collated information on all above aspects, following region specific animal breeding strategies can be planned for conservation and genetic improvement of bovine genetic resources under different animal production systems.
Genetic Improvement of Non-Descript Zebu Cattle by Crossbreeding
The most rapid and effective approach to genetically improve the largest chunk of non-descript zebu cattle population is through crossbreeding with exotic dairy cattle breeds particularly in milk shed areas around peri-urban and industrial towns

The sheep population in India is estimated to be about 65.07 million ranking second in the world (Anonymous, 2019). There are 42 descript breeds of sheep distributed in various agro climatic zones of the country (Anonymous, 2017). It is well-known that the sheep rearing provides nutritional security and insurance to the farmer at the time of crisis due to crop failure. Therefore, sheep is seen as, “finance elevator” by the countryside poor farmer (Sharif et al., 2011). Two major sources of income; meat and wool make sheep industry a very profitable enterprise. In addition, a rich source of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash present in the droppings of sheep improves the soil fertility. Indian sub-continent isa rich source of diverse ovine germ plasm.
The native breeds of sheep of from India are well adapted to geo-physical and agro-climatic conditions. Most of the breeds of sheep in India have evolved through natural selection. Most of the breeds have generally been named after their place of origin and on the basis of prominent characters. This vast ovine biodiversity in India is being eroded rapidly and more than 50% of sheep breeds are currently under threat.
Sheep biodiversity in India is characterized by high degree of endemism and variations in agro-climatic conditions of the different regions have led to the development of various breeds/strains. Selecting for breeding animals with superior EBV in growth rate, meat, milk, or wool production, or with other desirable traits has revolutionized livestock production through out the world.
Breeding means, the manner in which selected males and females are mated. The breeders identify and select desirable qualities in animals for future mating and discard less desirable qualities. For the improvement of livestock (farm animals) selection and breeding must be practiced simultaneously. Continuous selective breeding leads to homozygosity in a population resulting in loss of variability. If all the individuals are alike, the breeder cannot make progress in future. Hence, there is a need to create variability in population. This can be achieved by breeding. Therefore, selection and breeding go hand in hand for the improvement of livestock.

Hill cattle in Uttarakhand are multipurpose animals. They are used for milk, draft, manures and ceremonial purposes. Improvement for these attributes depends on definition and subsequent selection for various traits. Based on the criteria for improvement and detailed literature analysis, it is believed that the hill cattle of Uttarakhand is one of the potential population for milk in the state specially in the remote and high altitude areas.. Hill cattle have also been used for dairy improvement as a dam breed for crossbreeding in some cases in the state. It has been observed that hill cattle in the state mostly reared as dual purpose animal i.e milk and draft. Therefore, the hill cattle could be improved for both milk and draft. The aim of the present study is to know the status, characterstics and performance  and to suggest the possible options for improvement in milk productivity of hill cattle in the state.

2.1 Introduction

The different breeding strategies (methods) that can be employed for improvement of fruit crops include introduction, open pollinated selection, clonal selection, hybrid breeding, polyploidy breeding, mutation breeding, molecular breeding, in vitro breeding and transgenic breeding. Combining traditional approaches with biotechnological approaches will speed up the rate of genetic improvement. Thus, what is required is to adopt a coordinated approach involving breeders, biotechnologists, horticulturists, pathologists, entomologists and statistician for making the cultivation of fruit crops more scientific and more profitable and thereby contributing more to improving the health of the people in a sustainable manner.

Salinity stress poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity worldwide, impeding crop growth and yield potential. Developing crop varieties with enhanced salinity tolerance is essential for ensuring food security and sustainable agriculture. Salinity stress, resulting from excessive salt accumulation in soil and irrigation water, adversely impacts crop growth, water uptake, and nutrient assimilation. Traditional breeding methods, coupled with recent advancements in molecular and genomic techniques, have enabled the development of crop varieties capable of thriving in saline environments. Genetic diversity serves as the foundation for breeding efforts, allowing the identification and selection of individuals with inherent salinity tolerance traits. Utilization of wild crop relatives and landraces provides a valuable reservoir of genetic variation for salinity stress adaptation. Incorporation of molecular markers into breeding programs expedites the selection of desirable traits. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with salinity tolerance are identified through techniques such as genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and linkage mapping, facilitating marker assisted selection. Additionally, recent strides in gene editing technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats–associated protein 9) offer precise modification of candidate genes responsible for salinity response, accelerating the breeding process. A holistic approach encompassing physiological and biochemical aspects is crucial for accurate phenotypic selection. Traits, such as ion homeostasis, osmotic adjustment, and antioxidative capacity, provide insights into a plant’s salinity tolerance potential

The Annonaceae or custard apple family comprises about 120 genera and more than 2000 species (Leboeuf et al., 1982). The genus Annona is the most economically important one, containing 120 species. The major commercial species throughout the world are: the cherimoya (Annona cherimola), sweetsop (Annona squamosa) and atemoya (a hybrid of Annona cherimola and Annona squamosa). The custard apple species name ‘squamosa’ refers to the knobby appearance of the fruit. Custard apple is a small tropical tree originating in the New World tropics, probably Central America. This species is the most widely grown in the tropical regions of the America, Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Sweetsop is synonym also named sugar apple and has many other regional names, such as Custard apple (India), anon (Spanish), ata (Portuguese), noi-na (Thailand), stis (The Philippines) and fan-li-chi (Taiwan). Sweetsop is the mostly grown Annona species. The fruit is frequently found in village markets but has not shown much potential for large commercial cultivation due to the small fruit size, frequent cracking at maturity and poor shelf life. The perishable nature and supply shortages make marketing localized or air shipment essential.

Flowers are classified into three groups- self pollinated, often cross pollinated and cross pollinated- based on the extent of cross pollination which ranges from nil to 5 percent in self pollinated, 5-12 percent in often cross-pollinated and more than 12 percent in cross pollinated flowers. The information on extent of cross pollination is important to decide appropriate breeding methods to develop and improve the crop, to maintain genetic purity of seed, and to decide safe isolation distances from varieties, related species and related genera of the crop.

3.1 Autogamous (Self pollinated) flowers

When the egg in a flower gets fertilized by its own pollen, it is, referred to as autogamy. In statistical terms, it is, explained as the probability that egg gets fertilized by its own pollen as one. The coefficient of inbreeding which also measures the probability of selfing is also one in such crops. The genetic structure of autogamous flower is homozygous. The reasons for autogamy in flowers are essentially homomorphism, cleistogamy and chasmogamy. Homomorphism refers to uniformity in placement of essential floral parts, androecium and gynoecium e.g. Aster (double flowered), Balsam, Bells of Ireland, Carnation, Clianthus, Benghal dayflower (Commelina benghalensis), Gypsophila, Lupine, Salvia, Saponaria, Sweet pea and Sweet William. In autogamous ornamental crops, cross pollination in nature is almost negligible. Autogamous pollination may be of three types viz., autogamous selfing: refers to origin of pollen from anthers of the same flower; geitonogamous selfing refers to pollen from different flower on the same shoot or genet, and xenogamy, crossing refers to pollen from different flower on a shoot from another genet.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the process of bringing wild species under human management.
2. _____ is referred to as taking a genotype into new environments, where they were not being grown before.
3. Introduction of plants from a foreign country is called as _____.
4. Introduction from one state to another state is called as _____.
5. When the introduced variety is well suited to the new environment it is called as _____.

A) Conventional breeding techniques
Conventional breeding techniques for spices involve various methods to improve traits such as yield, quality, disease resistance, and adaptability. Here’s an overview of conventional breeding techniques applied to specific spices:
1. Black pepper (Piper nigrum)
• Selection: Choose superior plants based on traits like yield, quality of peppercorns, and disease resistance.
• Hybridization: Cross-breed different varieties to combine desirable traits.
• Mutation breeding: Induce mutations to develop new traits or enhance existing ones.
2. Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)
• Selection: Select plants with high yield, better quality, and disease resistance.
• Hybridization: Cross different varieties to improve traits such as pod size and essential oil content.
• Seed production: Improve seed production and quality through selection.
3. Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum)
• Selection: Identify plants with higher yield and better resistance to pests and diseases.
• Hybridization: Develop hybrids to enhance flavour and size of the cardamom pods.

The term genome refers to a complete set of DNA, including all of its genes. Each genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism. In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread like structures called chromosomes and each species has specific chromosome number. Most of the plants are diploid and they show in each one of its body cell, twice the number of haploid chromosomes (n) found in the gametes.
There are two main types of chromosomal variation that involve changes in the number. These are euploidy (in Greek “eu”means true or even and “ploid”means unit), which involves the variation of whole sets of chromosomes and aneuploidy(“aneu” means uneven), where a single chromosome within a set varies. This variation may be either increase or decrease in the chromosome number. The euploids include diploid (2n), triploid (3n), tetraploid (4n), hexaploid (6n) or even higher degree of polyploidy. Polyploidy, thus involves more than two genomes and is, therefore, a genometic mutation involving increase in the dose of whole genome. This condition of polyploidy is more common in angiosperms.

A few months back when Sharad Deshpande was talking about some processing tomatoes, I said that there is a lot of history behind processing tomatoes. He said then why don’t you speak on the subject and I said why not. So that is how this talk happened. First, I thought I will speak on breeding tomatoes as its history is even more interesting than what has happened later. I had heard a story when I went to USA for the first time in 1982. I was with Dr Charlie Rick, the father of tomato genetics, in his lab in USDA, UC, Davis, California. He talked about how the processing industry happened, who bred the types suitable for processing, how 80 percent of processing tomatoes of the USA came from California, where we are today and what could be done in this area.

In the changing Global scenario, food, nutrition, healthcare and livelihood security are the matter of great concern to human, social and economic development. The global community is increasingly looking towards finding means of sustainable nutrition for the growing population across all countries. The emphasis is on identifying lowresource strategies acceptable to the communities that do not put an unnecessary burden on the environment (FAO, 1993).
Nutritional security denotes the consumption and equitable access to adequate quantities of healthy, safe, affordable and nutritious food by every member of the family essential for optimal health and well-being. Concern for improvement of nutritional quality of vegetables has arisen in the context of providing nutritional security to our everincreasing population because poor nutrition is linked with increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease as well as broader impacts including higher health care costs and decreased productivity.
More than 1.0 billion people globally are hungry due to food insecurity problem and about 3.0 billion people are malnourished due to poor nutrition causing mainly micronutrient deficiency.