eChapters

18.1. Buffer stock

Refers to stock of food grains maintained by government to be used as a buffer to cushion shocks of fluctuating supply and price, to meet the emergency needs and to meet the situations arising out of serious unexpected shortages resulting from transport bottlenecks, natural calamities like war, flood, famine, earthquakes, and from the influx of refugees.

Introduction

This section of the manual contains instructions for preparing stock solutions that are commonly used in laboratory protocols for the analysis of DNA, RNA and proteins and visualization of gene or protein expression. Each of these stock solutions is provided as either the most convenient concentration or the most frequently used stock concentrations to be used in the protocols of an individual laboratory.

All chemicals must be reagent grade or molecular biology grade, and the water used in the preparation of all solutions must be the highest quality available. Use sterile-glass distilled deionised water whenever possible. Unless otherwise stated, most solutions required sterilization either by filtration or autoclaving.

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 Definition of Sustainable Ecosystems

A sustainable ecosystem is a complex network of living organisms and their non-living environment that can maintain itself and its processes indefinitely. This includes the interaction of plant and animal life, water, air, soil, and other physical and chemical components. These interactions ensure a delicate balance that allows the ecosystem to thrive and provide essential resources for all living beings, including humans. 

How can we develop a sustainable water security system in an era of climate change and global warming ?  In my view, every country should develop a sustainable water security system with the following four major components.

Supply augmentation

The major sources of irrigation water are from rainfall, rivers, tanks, reservoirs and other surface water resources, groundwater, industrial and domestic effluents, and seawater.  Seawater comprises almost 97 per cent of the global water resource and is an important social asset.  With the melting of Arctic and Antarctic ice, sea level will go up with disastrous consequences. The tsunami of December 2004 gave a glimpse of what could happen in the future.  To augment supplies, we must harvest rainwater and store it carefully, both above and below ground.  Also, we should ensure that all waste water which emerges from industry and domestic use is purified and recycled.  Rainwater harvesting should become a way of life, so that it becomes everybody’s business.

Onion

Genetic Resources

In onion, much variation exists in bulb characteristics for size, shape, colour of skin and flesh, number of hearts, skin retention, firmness, pungency, TSS, yield etc. Bulbs may be white, red, brown or yellow, round, globe, flat or spindle shaped. Diversity is also found in field tolerance to Stemphyllium blight, purple blotch, basal rot and thrips. Various workers have also reported tolerance to soil salinity, reduced bolting, keeping quality and high dry matter content. In India, NBPGR, New Delhi, is a nodal agency engaged in collection, evaluation and maintenance of onion germplasms both from indigenous and exotic collections. Accessions numbering more than 1,000 onion germplasm lines are being maintained at NBPGR, New Delhi. Other centres maintaining sizeable number of germplasms are IIHR, Bangalore, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, NHRDF also NRC on Onion and Garlic, Nasik; IARI, New Delhi, PAU, Ludhiana and IIVR, Varanasi. Indigenous collections account for more than 95% of the germplasm lines maintained in onion, which indicates the existence of large amount of variability within the country for short-day onions. However, it also indicates the necessity to enrich the existing germplasm pool by importing more exotic collections. Promising germplasms for different attributes are given in Table1.

Introduction Onion is a cool season bulb vegetable of high economic importance. According to Vavilov, Central Asia is the primary centre of origin; maximum species were found in the Mediterranean region in the West to Central Asia in the East. In India, onion was introduced around 600BC and from here it was introduced to the rest of the world. The largest onion-producing states in India include Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for approximately 90% of the nation’s total onion output. The expected share of Maharashtra in 2019-2020 is about 42.53% in onion production with 11363.00 tonnes. Onion has highest export value among vegetables, the total value earned in the year 2019 was ? 2660.79 crores (NHB, 2020). Onion contains about 89% water, 4% sugar, 1% protein, 2% fat. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin B6, folic acid and many other nutrients in trace amounts. Onion bulbs and onion greens are used in various dishes all over the world in cooked, as well as raw form. Red and yellow onions are used in soups because of their sweet taste. White onions are traditionally used in classic Mexican cuisine and also for dehydration purpose. India, Mexico, U.S., Turkey, Pakistan, etc are the major exporters of onion while the major importers of onion are Malaysia, UAE, Canada, Japan, etc.

Bulb crops include onion, garlic, leek, shallot, welsh onion and chive- all belonging to the genus Allium. This genus was earlier included in the family Liliaceae due to its superior ovary. It was later shifted to Amaryllidaceae as flowers are bom in a bracted umbel on top of a scape. Being the typical genus in the family Amaryllidaceae, a new separate family status was given to all the specious under Allium as Alliaceae.

The common features of bulb crops are:

1. The stem is under ground and rudimentary. The edible portion, bulb is formed by fleshy leaf bases in onion, fleshy axillary buds within thin foliage in garlic, blanched stem and leaves in leek etc.
2. All the bulb crops have a characteristic order due to presence of allyl - propyl - disulphide.
3. All are cool season vegetables and are grown during winter months in plains.

Bulb crops include onion, garlic, leek, shallot, welsh onion and chive all belonging to the genus Allium.  This genus was earlier included in the family Liliaceae due to its superior ovary.  It was later shifted to Amaryllidaceae as flowers are born in a bracted umbel on top of a scape.  Being the typical genus in the family Amaryllidaceae, a new separate family status was given to all the specious under Allium as Alliaceae.

Improved Varieties of Bulb Crops

A. ONION

Bulb Crops

Bulb crops are cool season vegetables that are grown during the winter months in plains. They are mainly growing for its fleshy leaf bases or fleshy axillary buds or blanched stem and leaves. Major bulb crops that are widely cultivating in our country comprises of onion, garlic and leek. They possess a characteristic odour due to the presence of volatile oil, allyl propyl disulphide (onion) and diallyl disulphide (garlic). They are either seed propagated as in onion and leek or through cloves as in garlic or through bulblets in multiplier onion. Seed propagated bulb crops are annual for bulb production and biennial for seed production. Seed production of bulb crops can be undertaken in plains especially in the central part of the country and southern plains whereas, northern plains hold the problems of Stemphylium and purple blotch during the seed crop and subsequent lower seed yield makes northern plains unfit for seed production. But these areas can be utilized for seed production by following the delayed planting of seed crop and avoiding the climate favouring the diseases.

Onion (Allium cepa)

Onion is a popular vegetable grown for its pungent bulbs. Bulbs are consumed as raw vegetable, as cooked vegetable or in preserved forms. Onion is reported to be originated in Central Asia and Mediterranean region is considered as the secondary centre of origin. It is adapted to a wide range of climate and it is being cultivated in India in three seasons viz., kharif, late kharif and rabi. India is having the largest area under onion cultivation in the world. It is also contributing substantially towards the export of the value-added products from our country. White or yellow onions are commonly using for producing dehydrated products whereas, the red ones are more preferred for direct consumption.

Bulbous and rhizomatous plants refer a large group which include both flowering and foliage types. Plants having underground modified stems in the form of bulb, corm, rhizome and tuber generally come under this category. This group effectively contributes beautification of the gardens by their flowers and is very popular. BuIbous and rhizomatus plants are perennial in nature, hardy and require less maintenance. In summer when there are few flowers in the garden, these plants help to keep the gardens in a presentable form by their magnificent flowers. Large number of bulbous and rhizomatous plants are in use for this purpose. The common flowering genera include - Amaryllis, Anthurium, Canna, Cooperia, Crinum, Eucharis, Gladiolus, Haemanthus, Hedychium, Hemerocallis, Lilium, Narcissus, Ornithogalum, Pancratium, Polianthes and Zephyranthus. Some of the popular genera of foliage type are - Alocasia, Asparagus, Caladium, Calathea, Kaempferia.

Classification

According to the climatic requirement for growth and flowering, these are grouped into following two main classes.

Warm Climate - These bulbous plants produce flowers during summer-rainy season. The important ones are - Amaryllis, Crinum, Canna, Haemanthus, Hedychium, Hemerocallis, Ornithogalum, Pancratium, Polianthes, Zephyranthus etc.

9.1. Onion (Allium cepa L.)

The onion (Allium cepa), which is also known as the bulb onion, or common onion is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It has been used as food since time immemorial and is an important vegetable all over the world. The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense). The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the “common onion group” (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as “onions”. The Aggregatum Group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions. Onion is suggested to have been originated in Asia, particularly Pakistan and Iran.

China is the largest onion producer in the world followed by India. Largest area under onion is in India followed by China. The major onion producing state are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

Cultivars/Varieites: Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency and maturation. The most popular varieties under cultivation are Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Agrifound Red, Agrifound Rose, Arka Bindu, Arka Kalyan, Arka Niketan, Arka Pragati, Baswant 780, Brown Spanish, Co-1, Co-2 Co- 3, Co-4, Early Grano, Hisar II, Kalyanpur Red Round, MDU 1 N-2-4-1, N-53, N-257-9-1, Punjab 48 (S 48), Pusa Madhavi, Punjab Red Round, Punjab Selection, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Udaipur 101, 102 & 103.

I. General information

1. Plants propagated through modified underground stems are grouped into tubers, bulbs, rhizomes
2. An example of a bulbous plant propagated through tuber is dahlia
3. Bulbous plants which are propagated through corms are Gladiolus, Freesia, Tetonia and Tigrida
4. Bulbous plants propagated through bulbs are Amaryllis, Tuberose, Zephyranthes and Crinum
5. Bulbous plants propagated through rhizome are Alstroemeria, Bamboo, Canna, Convallaris, Hydechium, Iris and Zantedeschia
6. Bulbous plant propagated through tubercle is Bowiea volubilis
7. Bulbous plants propagated through tuberous roots are Dahlia, Eranthis, Ipomoea, Mirabilis, Ranunculus and Tapioca
8. Bulbous plants propagated through tuberous stem are Begonia and Cyclamen
9. Bulbous plant propagated through offsets are daffodil, tulip and iris

The wide range of climatic conditions in India provides a choice of various bulbous crops to grow them in different parts of country. The term bulbous includes a wide array of perennial plants that are grown from underground organs, including bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes. Any plant described as bulbous will normally have a swollen root or stem or even leaves underground. A large number of these plants producing attractive flowers are commercially grown now days. Normally bulbous plant has a three phases during a year growth, flowering and dormancy. Bulbous plants are grown commonly in beds, shrubbery, herbaceous border, grassy land and in pots and bowl. A brief description of some common bulbous crops is given below.

1. Amaryllis: Common name (CN): Belladonna lily, King or Star lily, Botanical name (BN): Amaryllis spp., Family (F): Amaryllidaceae, Origin (O): South Africa.

Amaryllis is an excellent bulbous plant with deciduous foliage. Leaves are produced after cessation of flowering. It is suitable for bedding, pot, window boxes, greenhouses, borders, etc. Flowers are sold in the market as cut flowers. The flowers are large, trumpet shaped and are borne in umbels having 3-7 florets in small flowered varieties whereas 2-4 florets of giant size in Dutch hybrids. Amaryllis is propagated by vegetative means. They are mostly propagated through bulbs. They are also commercially propagated through tissue culture. Important species are Amaryllis belladonna, A. angustifolia, A. leopolidii, A. moreliana, A. papilio, A. striata, A. miniata and A. traubii.

Among garden plants, herbaceous perennials that produce perennating structures like bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes or fascicled tuberous roots are called bulbous plants. They belong to various plant families such as Amaryllidaceae, Cannaceae, Heliconiaceae, Iridaceae, Liliaeceae, Musaceae, Ranunculaeceae and Zingiberaceae. The possession of perennating structures that are modifications of plant parts- mostly stems- is common to these plants. These modifications aid in their vegetative propagation as the dormant buds associated with them regenerate when conditions are favourable to result in new plants. In both tropical and temperate climate zones, bulbous plants have evolved and naturalized in several ecological ‘niches’. Many of these have been domesticated centuries ago and are familiar garden plants. Generally, bulbous plats are adapted to grow vegetatively putting forth shoots carrying a limited number of leaves. When further vegetative growth has ceased these shoots produce terminal or basal inflorescences. Bulbous plants are grown and displayed in clumps.

Based on the requirement of relatively low or high temperatures for sprouting and flowering they are classified into warm- season bulbous plants and cool-season bulbous plants. These groupings are not exclusive and many plants have evolved varieties that thrive in both seasonal conditions.

12.1 Introduction
This chapter presents topics on drawing, stretching and extrusion under bulk transformation process. Tensile forces are used in the manufacturing process of drawing to extend materials, viz. plastic, glass, and metal. The material takes on the required thickness and shape as it is drawn, or dragged. Sheet metal drawing, and wire, bar and tube drawing are the two categories of drawings. Drawing is one of the most remarkable shaping techniques used in sheet metal stamping. During the drawing process, a blank’s surface area is forced into a new shape by controlled metal flow due to stress. As the metal enters the cavity, flow happens. Basically, drawing occurs when the blank’s exterior profile changes during the metal’s formation. One of the complicated yet most efficient methods for forming sheet metal is drawing. Because tension is involved in the drawing process, some stretching will occur, but the goal is to form the sheet metal with as little stretching as possible. Tension and metal thinning during the stretching process cause a blank’s surface area to increase. Do not mistake stretching for drawing. The blank changes shape as the metal flows through the die during drawing. The blank edge does not move inward during stretching. Except for the fact that stretching dies, in contrast to most embossing dies, use a high-pressure binder to limit and stop metal flow. Like a drawing pad, a binder purposefully prevents the metal from flowing inward. Stretching dies are used in the production of automotive parts, viz. fenders, roofs, and hoods. Extrusion is the process of forcing material through a die with the desired cross-section to generate components with a fixed cross-sectional profile.

Bulk population breeding developed by the Swede H. Nilsson Ehle in 1908 and later on supported and practiced by H. V. Harlan in barley breeding in 1940s is a breeding strategy in crop improvement in which natural selection is allowed to play its full role where the F2 generation is planted in a plot large enough to accommodate several hundreds of plants. Planting density and cultural practices are usually the normal ones followed for commercial crop planting. At maturity, the plot is harvested in bulk and the seeds are used to plant a similar plot in the next season. This process is repeated till at least F5 where the plants are space planted to allow individual plant evaluation for effective selection. During period of bulk propagation natural selection plays a key role in shifting gene frequencies in the bulk population. This role is of crucial importance as bulk handling is continued over a number of generations. Bulk population handling can be aided by artificial selection at any time during the period of bulk propagation. Aggressive and highly competitive but undesirable plants may be physically rogued out of the population to avoid increasing the frequency of undesirable genes. For example, determinate bush types of beans do not compete well against indeterminate, vine types. And if the breeder is interested only in determinate types, artificial selection against the indeterminate types is certainly called for. There is also good reason to apply artificial selection against seed colour, pubescence, awns or other characters that are undesirable in the variety to be developed but may be more or less neutral in survival. Bulk population handling often provides opportunities to make use of artificial aids to selection. For example, bulk harvesting when only part of plants are mature is an effective and inexpensive way to select for earliness. If particular sizes of seeds are required, screens or mechanical devices provide a rapid way of eliminating inferior types. Naturally occurring or artificially induced disease or insect infestation, of course, provide opportunities to rogue susceptible individuals from the bulk plot. In F6, the plants selected in F5 are progeny rowed and superior progenies are selected from where again few plants can be selected and seed bulked within a selected row. Depending upon seed requirement for yield trial in the following years, even the seed from selected entire row can be bulked. The follow up yield evaluation trials are as given in case of pedigree selection. This method is operationally best suited for seed crops such as small grains, beans and soybean and is almost totally unsuited for fruit crops and for most vegetable crops.

Bulk population method of breeding is defined as the growing of genetically diverse populations of self-pollinated crops in a bulk plot with or without mass selection, followed by single plant selection. It is applicable to self-pollinated crops and not applied to cross-pollinated crops. Bulk population breeding is a strategy of crop improvement in which natural selection effect is solicited more directly in the early generations of the procedure by delaying stringent artificial selection until later generations. The Swede, H. Nilsson-Ehle, developed the procedure. H.V Harlan and colleagues provided additional theoretical foundation for this method through their work in barley breeding in 1940s. As proposed by Harlan and colleagues, the bulk method entails yield testing of the F2 bulk progenies from crosses and discarding whole crosses based on yield performance. In other words, the primary objective is to stratify crosses for selection of parents based on yield values. The current application of the bulk method has a different objective.

Bulldozers are among the most crucial and versatile machines used in construction, mining, and various earth-moving applications. Known for their immense power and capability to perform heavy-duty tasks, bulldozers have become a cornerstone of modern construction projects. Their design features a large blade at the front, allows them to efficiently push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other materials, making them indispensable in clearing land, grading surfaces, and moving materials across construction sites. Advancements in technology and engineering have significantly improved bulldozer performance over the years adding more precision, power, and efficiency to these machines. The use of bulldozers spans various industries, from construction and road building to agriculture and forestry, where they play a key role in shaping landscapes, preparing sites, and assisting in major earth-moving operations. With the ability to work in diverse terrains and under challenging conditions, bulldozers have proven to be resilient, durable, and highly adaptable, meeting the needs of both small and large-scale projects. This chapter provides a breif overview into the history, design, types, functions, and applications of bulldozers, offering a comprehensive understanding of their significance in the construction and earth-moving industry. Through this exploration, we will also look at the innovations that continue to shape the evolution of this powerful machine.
TYPES OF COMMON BULLDOZERS
There are several different types of bulldozers available in the market. The most common among them are listed below:
• Crawlers: This bulldozer variant resembles a tractor and moves across the ground using tracks, providing better traction and preventing it from sinking into softer surfaces like loose dirt or sand. Often equipped with a ripper at the rear, crawlers are capable of breaking up tougher surfaces. Larger crawlers

Pododermatitis or bumble foot has many causes including excess weight bearing from obesity or unequal weight bearing between the two feet as a result of lameness of one foot, causing less weight to be placed on that foot and more on the contralateral foot, or from abnormal abrasions of the plantar surface from inappropriate substrate (too sharp or rough, wire, etc.), decreased blood supply to the foot (sometimes from lack of exercise), trauma, or standing for prolonged periods of time, especially in ducks that are not provided with adequate swimming opportunities.

Bumble foot is commonly seen in waterfowl under one or more of the following conditions; obesity, hard substrate, lack of access to water to swim in, malnutrition and underlying disease.

This is localized infection of the feet. It is seen as bulbous swelling of the footpad and surrounding tissues. It appears usually after an injury to the foot pad and causes lameness in one or both feet. Pododermatitis is divided into varying grades depending on the literature source used, but generally includes mild, moderate, and severe grades with the severe grades including osteomyelitis. Infection by various bacteria commonly occurs and superficial wounds may not be present. Sometimes ulcers are formed on the planter surface of the foot. The layers become lame and production lowers, sometimes completely stops. On opening the swelling a foul smelling thick pus is found. The condition is more common in heavy breeds. Early surgery and antibiotic therapy may control the condition. Removal of high roosts reduces the incidence.