eChapters

The functional efficiency of the respiratory system depends on the ability to oxygenate the blood and to remove CO2 as it passes in the respiratory
circulation resultant. Interference with this function can occur in a number of ways but the resultant defect in all cases is lack of adequate oxygen supply to
the tissues. The respiratory insufficiency like anoxia or hypoxia is responsible for most of the clinical signs of respiratory diseases leading to respiratory
failure and finally death.

Calcium, anti-oxidants and certain enzymes are reported to play vital role in extending the shelf-life of harvested produce of many horticultural crops especially fruits. They help in maintenance of cell wall structure. Being an important constituent of cell wall, in the form of calcium pectate, it helps in maintenance of cell wall structure. Antioxidants are highly beneficial in extending the shelf-life of fruits besides maintaining the quality. Similarly, some enzymes play a key role in preserving the fruit quality and prolonging its market life. As some fruits are catergorized under ‘Low volume high value fruits’, it is essential to extend their shel-flife for reducing the post-harvest losses of fruits and also to reap better remuneration. Thus, it becomes indispensable to review the role of Ca, anti-oxidants and enzymes which are beneficial in keeping the harvested produce afresh for a relatively longer period.

Introduction

Impact of WTO or Globalization of Indian agrarian sector claims to extend benefit of trade even to widely spread villages. In India, a sizeable number of rural masses are self-employed and able to produce what is needed just for their livelihood. They cannot be brought into market exchange relationship. So, there is every possibility of their being deprived of expected benefits. Globalization, rather, will widen the disparity between who are associated with market and who are not. Developed countries seem to have held globalization as a powerful weapon in their hands. They are stressing on opening up of national boundaries for movement of their goods and capital to developing countries but they are putting lot of restrictions on technology and labour movement, which can be far more beneficial to developing countries.

Black pepper is popularly known as ‘King of spices’, it is the dried berry of the pepper vine, so important in the International Trade Market. The crop has its origin in the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats of India.  Kerala is the leading State in the production of black pepper with the ubiquitous presence of this crop in coconut, arecanut and coffee plantations. Chief pepper producing countries are Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

Zantedeschia commonly known as Calla lily, Richardia or Pig lily belongs to family Araceae. It is the only genus in the tribe Zantedeschiae which is the sub family philodendroideae. The name Zantedeschia was given as a tribute to Italian botanist “Giovanni Zantedeschi” (1773-1846) by the German botanist Kurt Sprengel (1766-1833). It is considered by many people in the Republic of Ireland to be a symbol of Irish Republicanism. The Romans valued them so much that they often decorated the edges of the bloom with filaments of gold. These spectacular flowers are beginning to rival the rose in popularity for bridal bouquets. In India there has been initiation in the production of tubers of Calla and few tissue culture labs have started production for New Zealand and Dutch Companies. It is used as potted plants, callas are very attractive. It is used for decoration throughout the spring and early summer months focal point for a spectacular arrangement or bouquet.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The Zantedeschia albomaculata are native to areas of South Central Africa which are subjected to periodic drought (Letty, 1973). Zantedeschia was originally placed in the Calla genus by Carl Linnaeus, Zantedeschia aethiopica was moved in 1818 by Carl (Charles) Sigismund Kunth to the Richardia genus, until it was finally classified as Zantedeschia. Although Zantedeschia did not remain in the Calla genus, even after all this time this wonderful bulb is still referred to by its common name of calla lily.

The name “aethiopica” probably denotes South Africa, the country of the origin. Formerly its name was Calla or Richardia. This plant was introduced in Europe very early, apparently before Van Riebeeck had established the refreshment station at Cape. It is also illustrated in an account of Royal Garden in Paris in 1664. It was sent as one of the interesting plant of Cape to Europe by Simon van der Stal sometime before 1697. The genus is restricted to African continent with seven recognized species Z. aethiopica, Z. albomaculata, Z. ellottiana, Z. jucunda, Z. odoratum, Z. petlandii, andZ. rehmannii.

The common calla (Z. aethiopica) is found from the western Cape through the eastern Cape, Kwa Zullu-Natal, Mpumalanga and in to the Northern Province. In Australia calla lily is naturalized in moist niches of the cooler parts of the New South Wales, southern and south western Victoria, moist valley in Adelaide hills and north west Tasmania. They are serious weeds of pastures and natural bush land in south west of western Australia.

The calla lily is used throughout the world as an ornamental for its flowers. It is mainly grown in temperate and sub tropical climates of the world. They also thrive well under tropical conditions. New Zealand is the topmost producer followed by The Netherland. The original summer flowering calla species were introduced in New Zealand in the early twentieth century. Finland and Scandinavia are also big producer of callas and exported to Sweden and Norway. New Zealand offers a favourable climate to grow callas outdoors and for exports it is grown under controlled conditions. In India it is a potential emerging crop and requires improvement programme for commercialization.

14.1 Introduction

Proteins are the substances formed from nitrogen containing amino acids and are principle structural components of body tissues and muscle. In addition, they are used to produce various hormones, enzymes and hemoglobin in human body. Due to the shift from agricultural to electronics and other fast paying industrial development, most of the countries around the world, ceased to be self-sufficient in their food production in particular protein, which is necessary to satisfy their optimum food demands. The biotechnology development and its usage to agriculture have brought hope to them. The need for food by modernization of agriculture has gained much attention throughout the world. However, the necessity for exploring unconventional and non-agricultural means of food production, especially of proteins rich food, cannot be over-emphasized due to the tremendous growth of human populations in several regions of the world. In addition to this, the importance of protein in food nutrient cannot be put aside because its shortage causes various malnutrition problems and the most lethal malnutrition problem is Protein-Energy-Malnutrition (PEM). The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that nearly 870 million people of the 7.1 billion people in the world, or one in eight, were suffering from chronic undernourishment in 2010-2012. There are 925 million people undernourished in developed countries (FAO October, 2010). This situation has created a demand for the formulation of innovative and alternative proteinaceous food sources having high nutritional value. These sources have to be non-competitive with food for human consumption, economically feasible and locally available. This demands a search for new protein sources, with high nutritional value, economically feasible and locally available. Use of microbes as a food source is one of the biotechnological innovations that will certainly increase the availability of affordable protein in the world to solve the global food and feed problems.

In recent decades there has been an increased interest in the industrial production of microbiological protein for use in both human and animal nutrition. The main reason behind it is that there has been the shortage of low cost protein sources in view of the increasing human population and living standards, resulting in famine in some parts of the world and increased demand for animal protein in others.

5.1 Introduction

Weather is one of the most important factors which determine success or failure of agricultural production. It effects every growth phases and development of plant. During the growing period of the crop, any variability in the weather condition such as delay in monsoon, excessive rainfall, drought, flood, heat or cold wave affects the crop growth and finally reduces the quality and quantity of crop yield. These losses due to weather hazards can be reduced by taking proper crop management in time and by applying accurate weather forecast. Weather forecast also provides guidance for selection of crops and varieties best suited to the local climatic condition. 

Introduction

Indian agriculture is entering in a new phase. The major research and development efforts in the Green revolution era focused on enhancing production and productivity of selected food grains crops and only in Indo-Gangetic plains. The new challenges demand that issues of resource and input use efficiency receive high priority to ensure past gains can be sustained and further enhanced to meet the emerging needs. Issues of conservation have assumed importance in view of widespread resource degradation and the need to reduce production costs, increase profitability and make agriculture more competitive. The conventional mode of agriculture through intensive agricultural practices was successful in achieving goals of production, but simultaneously led to degradation of natural resources. The growing concerns for sustainable agriculture have been seen as a positive response to limit both low-input, traditional agriculture and intensive modern agriculture (relying on high levels of inputs for crop production). Sustainable agriculture relies on practices that help to maintain ecological equilibrium and encourage natural regenerative processes. Agricultural systems relying on such approaches are not only able to support high productivity, but also preserve biodiversity and safeguard the environment. Conservation agriculture has come up as a new paradigm to achieve goal of sustained agricultural production. It is a major step toward transition to sustainable agriculture.

Concept of Community Development

A community is a group of people, who live in a geographical area and have interests in each other for the purpose of making a living. It is a form of social organization existing between the family and the state. Development connotes growth and implies gradual and sequential phases of change. A community development program means a program for gradual change in a group of people living in a geographical area and having an interest in each other for making a living. It involves the principles of sustainable development, empowerment, inclusivity, social justice, human rights, participative democracy, and equality. It is a collaborative and facilitative process of people who share a common purpose of building the capacity to have a positive impact on quality of life.

• Community development is a movement intended to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation and on the initiative of the community.

• It is a balanced program for stimulating the local potential for growth in every direction in both wealth and welfare by themselves with minimum outside help.

• It is technically aided and locally organized by self-help.

• Community development is adopted by many governments to reach village people and to make more effective use of local initiative and energy for increased production and better living standards.

• Community development is a process of social action in which the people of a community organize themselves define their needs and problems and plan for action.

Basics of Technology Incubation
Technology incubation is a fascinating process that fosters the growth of innovative startups and businesses with high-potential technology. It provides a supportive environment and resources for early-stage companies to develop their ideas, validate their business models, and navigate the challenges of commercialization.
Here’s a breakdown of the key aspects of technology incubation: What happens in a technology incubation?
Pre-incubation: Startups with promising ideas can receive initial guidance and support to refine their concepts and develop a business plan.
Incubation: Selected startups gain access to shared office space, mentorship from experienced professionals, networking opportunities, and access to funding sources.
Post-incubation: Graduated startups continue to receive support in areas like marketing, legal advice, and investor relations as they scale their businesses.
Benefits of Technology Incubation
Reduced risks: Startups can test their ideas and validate their market potential before investing significant resources.
Access to resources: Incubators provide vital resources like office space, equipment, and software, reducing the financial burden on startups.

While conventional agromet advisories have played a crucial role in informing agricultural practices, their inherent broad-scale nature often falls short of addressing the nuanced realities of modern farming. For instance, rainfall predictions at a district level can mask significant variations at the farm or even field level due to local topography, soil types, and microclimatic conditions. Similarly, generic recommendations for irrigation scheduling or fertilizer application may not align with the specific needs of different crop varieties, growth stages, or soil moisture retention capacities within a farm. This lack of granularity can lead to inefficient resource utilization, sub-optimal application of inputs, and increased vulnerability to localized weather events, ultimately impacting productivity and profitability.
9.1. Key Drivers for the Emergence of PAAS
Several converging factors are propelling the shift towards precision in agrometeorology:
• Escalating Climate Variability: The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, coupled with long-term shifts in climate patterns, demand more adaptive and localized strategies. Farmers need precise and timely information to make informed decisions in the face of unpredictable weather.
• The Imperative for Sustainability: Sustainable agricultural practices necessitate the efficient use of resources like water, fertilizers, and pesticides. PAAS can contribute significantly by providing targeted recommendations that minimize waste and environmental impact.
• Technological Advancements: The rapid development and increasing affordability of various technologies are making PAAS a reality. These include:
• Remote Sensing: Satellite and drone-based imagery provide highresolution spatial data on crop health, soil moisture, and other critical parameters.
• Internet of Things (IoT) Sensors: Networks of sensors deployed in fields can continuously monitor local weather conditions, soil properties, and plant physiological parameters.

Luxation/Dislocation : It refers to the displacement of opposing articular surfaces of bone. The direction of displacement is described with reference to the distal bone in relation to the proximal bone.

Subluxation : It refers to partial or incomplete dislocation.

Classification
    1.    Acute : Recent occurrence of luxation.
    2.    Chronic : Luxation existing for a long time.
    3.    Recurrent : Reluxation after correction.
    4.    Simple : No open wound is communicating with the joint.
    5.    Compound : Open wound is communicating with the joint.
    6.    Pathological : Dislocation due to any pathological lesion.

Introduction

Leafhoppers belong to the family Cicadellidae and constitute one of the largest families in the exopterygotan Hexapoda. Recent estimates of species for the world range between 35,000-45,000 species though little over 22,600 species are now described (Dietrich, 2004a). The leafhoppers belong to the order Hemiptera and suborder Auchenorrhyncha.
 
Leafhoppers can readily be recognized from other members of the Auchenorrhyncha by the presence of two or more rows of spines on hind tibiae and by the pronotum not extending back over abdomen. Their close relative, the Membracidae, have pronotum extending back over the abdomen. From planthoppers (Delphacidae) with which they are often confused, they can be recognized by the position and structure of antennae. The leafhopper antennae are placed between eyes compared to beneath the eyes in planthoppers; the second segment of the antenna (pedicel) is small without externally visible sensillae in leafhoppers compared to enlarged pedicel with prominent sensillae in the planthoppers. The movable large spur at the apex of hind tibia in plant hoppers is absent in the leafhoppers.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Grafting and budding are horticultural techniques used to join parts from two or more plants so that they appear to grow as a single plant. In grafting, the upper part (scion) of one plant grows on the root system (rootstock) of another plant. In the budding process, a bud is taken from one plant and grown on another. The practice of grafting can be traced back 4,000 years to ancient China and Mesopotamia. As early as 2,000 years ago, people recognized the incompatibility problems that may occur when grafting olives and other fruiting trees.

7.2 ROOT STOCK

The part of the graft that provides root system to the grafted plant is known as rootstock. It is, normally, raised by seeds in the seedbed and then, transplanted in the nursery bed for budding and grafting. Rootstocks are also raised in pots and polythene bags.

Introduction
The haematological system, essential for sustaining life and comprising blood and its components, is fundamental to human and animal physiology. Blood is a unique connective tissue that performs several critical functions, including transporting oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells and removing metabolic wastes. It also plays a pivotal role in immune response, haemostasis, and the regulation of body temperature and pH. This
section provides an in-depth overview of the clinical physiology of the haematological system, covering the composition of blood, haematopoiesis, haemostasis, and common haematological disorders. Blood is composed of two main elements: plasma and blood cells. Plasma, the liquid component, constitutes approximately 55% of blood volume and consists predominantly of water, electrolytes, proteins, waste products, and dissolved gases. Plasma is the medium for transporting nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste products throughout the body. It contains important proteins such as albumin, which maintains osmotic pressure; globulins, which are involved in immune responses; and fibrinogen, which is crucial for blood clotting. The blood cells include erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets. Erythrocytes are the most abundant cells in the blood, with the primary function of transporting oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues back to the lungs. This is facilitated by haemoglobin, an iron-containing protein within erythrocytes that binds to oxygen. The lifespan of an erythrocyte is approximately 120 days, after which it is phagocytosed by macrophages, which are a type of myeloid phagocytic cells in the spleen and liver. Leukocytes are integral to the immune system, protecting the body against infections and foreign pathogens. They are categorized into granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes).

6.1 Introduction
One of the various fusion welding techniques used to combine metals is arc welding. It melts and joins metals by producing a high temperature using an electric arc. An electric arc is created between a base metal and a consumable or non-consumable electrodede by a power source. The types of arc welding methods are listed below.
i. Gas shield tungsten arc welding
ii. Metal arc welding
iii. Submerged arc welding
iv. Gas shield metal arc welding
v. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
vi. Electrode-Slag Welding (ESW)
vii. Electrode-Gas Welding (EGW)
viii. Arc Stud Welding (SW)
ix. Carbon Arc Welding (CAW)
x. Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
6.2 Gas Shield Tungstan arc Welding
An electric arc formed between a tungsten electrodede and the metal that needs to be joined starts the welding process. The arc melts the metal while protecting the weld from airborne impurities with a cloud of argon, helium gas, or carbon dioxide. A separate filler rod can be used to add additional filler metal. An inert gas, such as argon or helium, surrounds a non-consumable tungsten electrodede during the arc welding method known as tungsten inert gas welding (TIG). If more weld metal is needed, an additional filler rod can supply it. To prevent overheating and excessive erosion of the tungsten electrodede, a direct current is employed with the electrodede negatively charged.

Feeding of green and succulent fodder is of utmost importance to farm animals. Grazing fresh forage year round at the optimal stage of maturity would supply the highest quality and most palatable form of feed in any livestock operation. In most part of the world, green fodder is limited to a particular season only. Because of fluctuations in seasonal growth and plant maturity, excessive biomass in the spring, it is necessary to harvest and store forages to maximize both quality and productivity. One of the important form of conservation practiced on a wide scale is hay making. Hay making is an art in which the fodder is kept for future use in lean period. Since it contains large quantity of moisture it is to be dried properly to increase its keeping quality without reducing its nutritive value. The objective of hay making is to achieve a rapid moisture loss after cutting so that the forage can be romoved from the field with minimum losses from weathering and microbial degradation (Bareebam, 1992).

Introduction

Community-based fisheries management (CBFM), in which a community takes responsibility for managing its adjacent livelihood habitats with government or third-party assistance, can take both aquatic and terrestrial forms. CBFM plays an important role in managing aquatic ecosystems, fisheries, and communities using either traditional or scientific methods. If something bad happens, the locals take immediate action and deal with it in a systematic manner.

Guava, Psidium guajava Linn. was originated in tropical America and is presently cultivated in the tropical and subtropical world (Al-Fwaeer, 2013). It is considered one of the healthiest fruit because it has many medicinal properties. Right from strengthening our immune system to regulating a healthy and ideal blood pressure, Guava provides multiple health benefits. It is one of the richest sources of Vitamin C, minerals, dietary fiber and fulfills about 20% of our daily folate (Vitamin-B9) requirement which is not produced in our body and is essential for DNA repair and synthesis (Kevat, 2013). But its steady production is hampered due to a number of biotic and abiotic stresses. Amongst the biotic stresses, insect pests contribute to the maximum strength for declining its production.

Potted Plants

In urban areas, scarcity of space compels the dwellers to take up gardening on rooftop, terrace, balcony or small space adjacent to the house. Usually, plants are grown in pots or containers for rooftop gardening. Big size pots with diameter of 30 cm or more are required for growing rose plant. It is necessary to prefer tall pots to obtain appropriate growth of the plant having deeper root system. Now-a-days, pots of different materials such as clay, cement and plastic are used for growing potted plants. Usually, clay pots are better than plastic pots as clay is slow in transfer of heat thereby maintaining the root zone cooler. Of course, plastic pots are lighter and suitable for use on the rooftop as those put less load on the building structure. Light coloured plastic is preferred to dark colour as those generate less heat. Although heavier, cemented pots are more durable than earthen or plastic pots. The pots should have adequate drainage facility with holes in the bottom. Besides, a layer of gravel or medium-size stone of one-inch thickness are to be placed at the bottom of the container to facilitate drainage.