eChapters

This chapter introduces soil, growing media, irrigation and nutrient management practices essential for high-quality flower production under protected conditions. It covers containers, organic and inorganic growing media, soil decontamination, drip irrigation, fertigation and fertilizer selection. Important intercultural practices such as pinching, disbudding, deshooting and other crop-management operations are also discussed. The chapter emphasizes efficient use of water and nutrients while maintaining an optimum root environment and achieving high productivity.

This chapter introduces Alstroemeria as a high-value cut flower commonly known as Peruvian lily. It discusses its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics, commercial varieties and protected cultivation requirements. Temperature, humidity, light, carbon dioxide, irrigation, nutrition, crop management, harvesting and postharvest handling are addressed. The chapter also considers grading standards, vase-life enhancement and important pests and diseases. Particular attention is given to modern hybrids and greenhouse production for high-quality stems.

This chapter introduces Anthurium as an important tropical ornamental crop cultivated for cut flowers, potted plants and landscaping. It examines its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercial varieties. The chapter discusses greenhouse conditions including temperature, humidity, light, shade, irrigation, nutrition and propagation. It also covers pests, diseases, harvesting, grading, storage and packing. The importance of improved cultivars and controlled environmental conditions in maintaining high-quality flowers is emphasized.

This chapter introduces chrysanthemum as one of the world's important commercial cut flowers, particularly suited to controlled production because flowering is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. It discusses standard and spray types, origin, genetics, botanical characteristics, varieties and greenhouse cultivation. Temperature, humidity, light regulation, carbon dioxide, nutrition, irrigation, pest and disease management, harvesting, grading and storage are covered. The chapter also highlights the use of modern breeding and protected environments for year-round production.

This chapter introduces the growing role of digital commerce, Good Agricultural Practices and trade regulations in modern floriculture. It examines e-commerce platforms, online flower auctions, producer-to-consumer connectivity and digital traceability. The chapter also discusses GAP principles, certification, EXIM Policy, Foreign Trade Policy, sanitary and phytosanitary requirements, technical barriers and other non-tariff barriers. These concepts are presented in the context of improving quality, traceability, market access and international competitiveness of Indian floricultural products.

This chapter introduces egg science and technology as a multidisciplinary field combining biology, physiology, chemistry, microbiology, nutrition, engineering and food technology. It discusses the historical development of egg use and processing and examines the position of eggs as a major global and Indian food commodity. The chapter explains the structure and growth of the Indian egg industry, production and consumption trends, economic and nutritional importance, and the complete egg value chain from breeding and feed through farm production, grading, processing and consumption.

This chapter introduces the biological structure and formation of the hen egg. It examines the shell, cuticle, shell membranes, albumen, yolk, vitelline membrane, chalazae and germinal disc and explains the functions of each component. The chapter also describes the reproductive system of the laying hen, oogenesis and the sequence and timing of egg formation within the oviduct. Comparative egg structures of other poultry species and shell pigmentation are discussed, along with shell ultrastructure and quantitative composition.

This chapter introduces the concepts of internal and external egg quality and explains the methods used to measure important quality attributes. It covers shell quality, shell strength, cleanliness, shape, albumen quality, yolk quality, air-cell characteristics and freshness. Classical indices such as Haugh unit, yolk index and specific gravity are discussed alongside candling and modern non-destructive instrumental techniques. The chapter also explains how egg quality changes during storage through moisture and carbon-dioxide loss and provides a scientific basis for interpreting quality measurements and applying them in commercial grading.

This chapter introduces grading and standardization as mechanisms for converting biological variation in eggs into defined commercial specifications. It examines grade factors, quality classes, egg sizing and weight classification, and Indian standards including AGMARK and BIS. International approaches such as Codex, USDA and EU frameworks are compared. The chapter also describes automated grading equipment, candling, packing systems and packaging requirements. Particular attention is given to Indian egg-marketing channels, price behaviour, cold-chain requirements and consumer perception.

This chapter introduces the major biological, nutritional, environmental and management factors that determine egg quality. It examines genetic and breed influences, hen age and stage of lay, nutrition and feed composition, housing systems, environmental conditions and heat stress. The effects of disease, medication, handling, on-farm management and storage are also discussed. The chapter emphasizes that egg quality results from interactions among multiple factors rather than from a single intervention. Induced moulting and nutritional management are considered as practical approaches to maintaining quality during the laying cycle.

This chapter introduces the commercial handling and processing of shell eggs from reception through packing. It examines pre-processing inspection, egg washing, cleaning, sanitization, drying, oiling, shell treatment, candling and defect removal. Automated grading and packing operations, plant layout, equipment, effluent management, sanitation and cleaning-in-place are also addressed. The chapter emphasizes traceability, good manufacturing practices and careful handling to prevent contamination and breakage. It demonstrates how packing stations preserve the quality delivered from the farm rather than creating quality after the fact.

This chapter introduces the functional properties that make eggs valuable ingredients in food systems. It explains coagulation and heat-setting, foaming and aeration, emulsification, gelation, colour and flavour development, binding, adhesion and thickening. The effects of pH, temperature, processing conditions and other factors on functional performance are examined. Applications in bakery, confectionery, mayonnaise, sauces, meat products and other foods are discussed. The chapter demonstrates that eggs provide multiple technological functions simultaneously, making them particularly valuable and difficult to replace with a single alternative ingredient.

This chapter introduces value addition as a means of converting eggs from a commodity into convenient, shelf-stable or specialized food products. It covers ready-to-eat eggs, hard-cooked eggs, pickled and marinated eggs, egg-based snacks, specialty products, emulsified products and mayonnaise. Region-specific and ethnic egg products of India are also discussed. The chapter introduces product development, sensory evaluation, packaging and retort processing. It emphasizes the commercial potential of value-added products while recognizing the associated requirements for food safety, processing control, market acceptance and appropriate packaging.

This chapter introduces systematic approaches for controlling biological, chemical and physical hazards throughout the egg chain. It explains the seven principles of HACCP and their application to shell eggs and egg products. Prerequisite programmes, GMP, GHP, FSSAI regulations, international regulatory frameworks, traceability, recall management and risk communication are discussed. A worked HACCP plan for liquid egg demonstrates how hazards and critical control points can be identified and controlled. The chapter emphasizes that egg safety requires an integrated farm-to-fork approach rather than relying solely on processing-plant controls.

This chapter introduces approaches for converting egg-processing residues and by-products into useful materials and products. It examines eggshell composition and applications, eggshell membrane and its biomedical and industrial potential, utilization of surplus and inedible egg material, and extraction of high-value components such as lysozyme and IgY. Waste management, sustainability and circular-economy approaches are also discussed. The chapter emphasizes that successful by-product utilization depends not only on technical feasibility but also on economics, scale, infrastructure, biosecurity and appropriate markets.

Introduction

Activities to promote and monitor the growth of aquaculture inherently have a spatial component, because of the variations among biophysical and socio-economic characteristics from location to location. Biophysical characteristics may include water quality, soil type and climate. Socio-economic characteristics in aquaculture development may include administrative regulations, competing resource uses, market conditions, infrastructure support, and availability of technical expertise. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) provides the spatial information needed for decision-makers who evaluate such biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics as part of aquaculture planning efforts more effectively and timely (Kapetsky and Travaglia, 1995). GIS is potentially a powerful tool for assisting this class of decision-makers, and is already being effectively used for such purposes in some places (Carswell, 1998; Arnold et al., 2000) where advanced capabilities in terms of infrastructure and trained personnel exists. Nath et al. (2000) discussed various applications of GIS in aquaculture. In general spatial information technologies are being effectively used for sustainable management of aquaculture and inland fisheries. Some potential applications are as follows:

Introduction

In view of the existence of productive agro-climatic and soil-morphological conditions, a dynamic estuarine river system and unique network of productive brackishwater aquaculture has emerged in the coastal states of India. It is immensely suitable for the shrimp/shrimp+fish culture providing high valued export quality shrimp. The Indian contribution of world shrimp export is at 6% (Katiha et al., 2003). Unfortunately, investment in shrimp farming has slowed down (Hempel, 2000) in recent years due to lack of interest among the entrepreneurs. Therefore, it is pertinent to work out and compare the economic feasibility of various shrimp farming system. Studies on cost and return for shrimp production are scanty, therefore, in depth analysis with identification of bottlenecks, yield gaps and constraints is the need of hour. It may lead to harness the potential for shrimp farming through inculcating entrepreneurs’ interest. This may also help the financial institutions for reconsidering loan procedure and further investment in this enterprise. Considering, over one third of national potential area for the enterprise and its sustainability over past decade, the study mainly concentrates on shrimp farming in the state of West Bengal.

Introduction

Project evaluation aims at analysing research and development projects, or activities or ideas, for any or all of the following purposes:

Getting an overall understanding of the project.

 Making priorities among a set of projects.

 Taking a decision about whether or not to proceed with a project.

 Monitoring projects, eg. by following up the parameters analyzed when the project was selected.

 Terminating projects and evaluating the results obtained.

Introduction

A little information when shared can go a long way. Information patented can elevate India to great heights. Property (tangible) is associated with physical objects: house, land, etc., while intellectual property (intangible) includes Patents, Trade secrets, Copyrights, and Trademarks. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal rights which result from intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary, and artistic fields. Intellectual property protection (IPP) is right to protect intellectual property. Various types of IPR are:

Abstract

Geochemical processes occurring within the groundwater and reactions with aquifer minerals have a profound effect on water quality. Hydrogeochemical composition of groundwater can also be indicative of its origin and history of passage through underground materials which water has been in contact. Assessing groundwater quality and developing strategies to protect aquifers from contamination are necessary aspects for proper planning and designing water resources. Anthropogenic activities like explosion of population, industrial growth, inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation has been a crucial factor for determining the quality of groundwater. In this scenario, 43 groundwater samples were collected from the Dindigul district of Tamilnadu, a Hard rock terrain. The samples wereanalyzed for major cations and anions along with heavy metals to derive the different quality parameters and to obtain the pollution indices of different samples. This study focuses to find out the spatial relationship between the analyzed fluoride concentration in groundwater and pollution indices derived from the heavy metal concentration in the groundwater of the study area and their variation with respect to season.

A disaster (from Latin meaning, “bad star’) is the impact of a natural or man-made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or industry often resulting in permanent changes to human societies, ecosystems and environment. The event itself is not a disaster; it is the impact that is a disaster. Their possibility of occurrence, time, place and severity of the strike can be reasonably and in some cases accurately predicted by technological and scientific advances. Hence, we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage though we cannot reduce the extent of damage itself.  The impacts suffered include trauma, starvation, dehydration, infection, disease, shock etc. Animals are often the silent victims of disasters, and there is a real need around for the provision of effective training and management programmes to ensure that their survival and welfare are adequately accounted for. This demands the study of disaster management in methodical and orderly approach.

ICAP : It stands for International Centre for Alcohol Policies.

Ice Bank Cooler : Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce. So use forced air high humidity cooler are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank Coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice bank cooling : Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and a system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5-1^ºC temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained.

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500-E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents),  and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

H layer: The humus layer of the forest floor, consisting largely of well-decomposed, amorphous organic matter.
 
Habitat: i) The sum of effective environmental conditions under which an organism lives. ii) Often used for the natural range of distribution of a species. iii) The kind of place in which a plant or animal lives, such as forest habitat, grassland habitat etc. iv) The ecosystem in which a plant or animal lives and obtains food and water. v) It refers to a place or ecological community, or a set of ecological communities, in which an organism or population of organisms occurs. vi) The immediate environment occupied by an organism. vii) The natural environment of an organism excluding other living organisms (the biotope). See also Site. viii) The place or environment where an animal (or plant) naturally or normally lives and raises young.

L layer: The litter layer of the forest floor, consisting of unaltered dead remains of plants and animals.

Land : Land is a broader term than soil. In addition to soil, its attributes include other physical conditions such as mineral diposits and water supply; Location in relation centers of commerce, population, and other land; the site of the individual tracts or holdings; and existing plant cover and works of improvement.

Land capability: The suitability of land for use without damage. Land capability (as ordinarily used in the united states) is an expression of the effect of physical land conditions, including climate, on total suitability for use without damage, for crops that require regular tillage, for grazing, for woodland and for wildlife. Land capability involves consideration of the risk of land damage from erosion and from other causes and also difficulties in land use owing to physical land characteristics, including climate.

The natural habitat of rubber (Heavea brasiliensis) is rain forests of the Amazon basin, situated within 5° North and South at altitudes below 200m. The climate of this region is equatorial monsoon type characterized by mean monthly temperature by 25 to 28°C, well distributed rainfall and no marked dry weather. Though it is originated in the Amazon basin, it is now predominantly grown in the tropics where an equatorial monsoon type climate prevails. Regions between 8°N and 10°S which includes Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, southern part of Sri Lanka and some other Islands, are better suited to rubber cultivation. The production of natural rubber in the country was 8.65 lakh MT in 2008–09, registering a 4.74 per cent growth compared to the previous year.

The purpose of the clinical examination is to identify the clinical abnormalities that are present and the risk factors that determine the occurrence of the disease in the individual or population. The focal point of any investigation of animal disease is the making of diagnosis and the critical part in making that decision is the clinical examination of the animal or group of animals. Without a proficient clinical examination and an accurate diagnosis it is unlikely that the treatment, control, prognosis and welfare of animals will be optimized.  The level of examination set out is sufficient to enable the clinician to determine the nature of the abnormality and the system involved.

Transfusion therapy is basically an attempt to replace blood or its components when the life is threatened. Blood transfusion plays a life saving role in general mostly to shorten the recovery time during any severe blood loss conditions arising due to accidents, major surgical interference, haemoprotozoan diseases especially in canines during anaemic conditions due to sever helminthic infestions, tick infectation, haemophilia etc.

In livestock, diversity of blood and lack of commercially available blood typing reagents, make blood group matching and typing difficult, which results in reduced importance in veterinary practice. Blood or individual blood component is to be transferred during the following conditions-

Cerebrospinal fluid is found in the ventricles, cistern of brain, canal of spinal cord and in space between piamater and arachnoid. The main source of CSF is choroids plexus in the ventricles of brain. CSF is derived from the blood plasma and therefore, it has qualitatively the same composition. But the discrepancies between the ionic concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid and blood plasma indicate that the fluid is not a simple filtrate but a product of active secretary mechanism. Functionally, CSF protects and nourishes the parenchyma and maintains homeostasis. Diagnosis of diseases of CNS posses a challenge to the clinician and confirmation of tentative diagnosis based on clinical manifestations requires cytological and biochemical examination of CSF. Removal and laboratory examination of CSF are indicated whenever there is clinical evidence suggesting CNS disease.

Warren (1987) defined indigenous knowledge as local knowledge, knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. This knowledge is the information base for the society, which facilitates communication and decision making. Indigenous knowledge is passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth.
 
Carter (1988) while describing the nature of indigenous knowledge indicated that IK is highly localised and restricted. Local environmental factors and cultural conditions govern the revolution of IK these vary between countries, regions and even farm to farm.

3.1    Cereals
    List of weeds in Rabi season crops
    Management of weeds in Cereals
    
    Wheat
    
    Management of weeds in Pulses
    
    Chickpea
    Fieldpea
    Lentil
    
    Management of weeds in Oilseeds
    
    1. Rapeseed / Mustard / Toria
    2. Pictures of major weeds of Rabi season crops
    
    Non-crop lands weeds and their management
    
    1. Parthenium hysterophorus
    2. Saccharum spontaneum
    3. Lantana camara

• Introduction
• Types of DSS
• Scope of DSS
• Benefits of DSS 
• Common Uses of Decision Support Systems
• Decision Support System for Farm Management

1.     Chromatography
    
2.     Identification of Sugar in Fruit Juice by Thin Layer Chromatography
    
3.     SDS-PAGE
    
4.     Composition for Native PAGE
    
5.     Silver Staining of Protein Gels

1.     Isolation of Plant DNA
    
2.     RAPD Analysis of Genomic DNA
    
3.    Agro Bacterium based Transformation in Plants
    
4.     Assay for Gus Operon
    
5.     Confirmation of Transformation using Polymerized Chain Reaction (PCR)
    
6.     Primer Designing
    
7.     Isolation, Purification and Identification of Plant Secondary Metabolites
    
8.     Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity of Plant Extract
    
9.     Estimation of Total Phenolic Content in A Plant Extract
    
10.     Estimation of Total Flavanoid Content

The ‘greenhouse effect’ earns its name from the rough similarity between the way it works and the way the glass of a greenhouse works. Glass too, is transparent to short-wave radiation but opaque to long-wave radiation, so the greenhouse traps heat.
Carbon dioxide plays a critical role in controlling the Earth’s climate because as an aerosol it absorbs and reflects or scatters incoming radiation on the one hand and absorbs and reradiates outgoing infrared radiation on the other. This latter phenomenon results in what is popularly called the Greenhouse Effect, an analogy to what happens in a greenhouse.

The ozone layer is a region in the Earth’s stratosphere where a certain amount of incoming solar radiation is absorbed. Over the last twenty years or so a series of man-made threats to it have been reported and each has been treated  with more gravity than the last. Now a-days such threats feature  regularly on the agendas of international conferences.

Ozone, Positive and Negative : Ozone, or trimolecular oxygen (O3) can be advantageous or exert harmful influence on human health, as well as that of other organisms. It is all depends on whether it is present in the troposphere or stratosphere (Fig. 8.1). In the stratosphere, ozone is a beneficial serving as a shield in screening out most of the damaging portions of ultraviolet radiation which have wavelengths between 290 and 320 nanometers. In the troposphere, ozone is a negative as it appears as a component of smog with a number of deleterious effects, as will be discussed below.

Abstract

Fruit, Vegetable, Flowers, Medicinal and Aromatic crops are as horticultural crops play significant role in improving the productivity of land, generating employment, enhancing exports, improving economic conditions of the farmers and entrepreneurs and providing food and nutritional security to the people. For better management of the existing crops and to bring more area under horticulture crops, updated and accurate database is necessary for systematic planning and decision making. Remote sensing (RS) is an advanced tool that aids in gathering and updating information to develop scientific management plans. Many types of sensors namely microwave radiometers, laser meters, magnetic sensors and cameras collect electromagnetic information to derive accurate, large-scale information about the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Because these data and images are digital, they can easily be quantified and manipulated using computers. RS can be used in efforts to reduce the risk and minimize damage. The same data can be analyzed in different ways for different applications. A number of studies were aiming at identification of crop, area estimation, disease and pest identification, etc. using satellite data in horticulture. The potential use of RS techniques in Horticulture is briefly reviewed in order to exploit the available techniques for efficient crop management.

Introduction

Lonar Lake, near Lonar town in the Buldhana District, India is not just the source of excitement for the visitors but also for the scientist community. Lonar is the third largest natural salt-water lake in the world, with a diameter of 1800 meter. Fredrickson, et al (1973) found that, about 50000 year back a massive meteor entered into the Earth’s gravitational forces ranging 60 meter long and weighing 2 million ton. It was racing at a speed of 25 kms per second towards the planet earth. When it struck the earth the energy released was equivalent to that released by six-megaton atom bombs. The impact was so severe that rocks from all sides came on the surface and reached the height of 20 meters. This impact left a massive crater 170 meters deep and with 1800 meter in diameter. Today it is natural salt-water lake.

Introduction

Growth of Science is never ending process. In that, technology development is dynamic in nature. It is applicable to all the fields come under the Science, including Agriculture also. Continuous evaluation of improved technologies had taken place in Agriculture. On the other hand, communication network through Cyber techniques or E-Extension plays a crucial role. By the way, there is a need of innovative approaches for effective technology transfer for which no one is clear like that of deriving new technologies. Starting from the 20^th century, many programmes were launched for development of rural India. As these were official dominated and top-down system, the ‘Panchayati Raj’ -the three-tier system was introduced at village, block and district levels in 1960’s keeping the local leaders as Kingpins with more participation of rural people. This had also not given due dividends owing to political infiltration and less co-operation by the development departments and lack of coordination among all concerned. A panoramic view of extension world over gives varieties of models and experiences. But no single model would suit to our conditions and here we need louder thinking on this line.

Abstract

Being the junction between the continental and the oceanic plates, the coastal zones are always tectonically alert and hence vested with number of aults. The study of LANDSAT ETM FCC imagery revealed one such a major fault along NNE-SSW aligned Tamil Nadu coast from Chennai in the North northeast to Cape Comorin in the South southwest. This Precambrian boundary fault shows signs of repetitive reactivation during Gondwana, Tertiary and Late Holocene periods. While in former two periods it shows indications of faulting, in the latter period, it is manifested in the form of drainage deflections indicating sinistral movements of beds. While such sinistral morphology of the fault seems to be related to the Post collision compression, the seismicities in and in its close proximities indicate the seismic significance of this fault. In the context of natural resources and disasters viz: geothermal springs, flooding and seismicities, this fault demands deeper studies.

Introduction

The coastal regions in general form the junction between the continental and oceanic plates. Hence, the coastal regions are always tectonically active and thus vested with coast parallel, tangential and conjugate faults depending upon the tectonic history of the area. In the Indian subcontinent too, all along the 9000 km long east and west coast margins, number of major faults were mapped by the earlier workers. Significantly, Vardarajan and Ganju (1989) have brought out a comprehensive picture on the lineaments of the entire coastal zone of India using Landsat images. Vemban et al. (1977) earlier inferred faults along certain segments of east coast of Tamil Nadu and observed them to be lithological contacts and also seismogenic in nature. Raiverman et al. (1966) have again inferred earlier a N-S curvilinear fault in Thanjavur deltaic region and attributed it to post drift kinematics of the Indian plate. Ramasamy (1989) has brought out the morphotectonic and morphodynamic model of the east and west coasts of India on the basis of tectonic and geomorphic signatures using Landsat satellite images. Ramasamy (2006) developed a first time comprehensive model on the active tectonics of the Indian Peninsular and in which he brought out detailed information on the varied geomorphic, tectonic and hydrological anomalies and inferred them to be related to the whirling and fracturing of the Indian plate due to the still prevailing N–S to NNE – SSw compressive force which originally drifted the Indian plate to the present position after the breakup of the Gondwana land.

Abstract

Landslides have become a fast spreading epidemic in the mountain belts around the world. As both the natural geosystem and the triggering parameters this phenomenon, the scientists & technocrats from all over the world have started studying it using varying parameters and multivariate advanced scientific tools. In this connection the present study lays an emphasis on the need for giving deserving importance to one of the important geosystem parameters, namely the geomorphology in Landslide Vulnerability Mapping. The same has been accomplished by taking the Nilgiri Mountains of Western Ghats, South India as the test site.

Introduction

Landslides are the most commonly witnessed geohazards in mountainous systems of all over the world causing greater and recurring loss to Man, his properties and to his various developmental programmes. As these landslides mostly occur after heavy rainfalls, it was considered as the most important triggering parameter for the landslides. In indian subcontinent, the landslides of Himalayan region while were inferred to be predominately due to Active tectonics (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) landslides of Westernghats of Maharastra were explained to be the effect of extensive weathering and the rock falls from the cliff and the summit zone (11,12) but in contrast, the landslides of Nilgiri mountains have been attributed to deforestation, direct entry of rain water into the soil system and the resultant pore pressure increase (13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21) but the studies carried out (22) in the Nilgiri Mountains indicated that various geosystem parameters viz: Lithology, Structure, Geomorphology, Slope etc., occur in various permutations and combinations and assign different landslide vulnerability grades to the land systems and when such vulnerable zones are interfered by the triggering parameters, the landslides occur.

Deadweight cost/loss : The extent to which the value and impact of a tax, tax relief or subsidy is reduced because of its side-effects. For instance, increasing the amount of tax levied on workers’ pay will lead some workers to stop working or work less, so reducing the amount of extra tax to be collected. However, creating a tax relief or subsidy to encourage people to buy life insurance would have a deadweight cost because people who would have bought insurance anyway would benefit.

Death-to-case ratio : The number of deaths attributed to a particular disease during a specified time period divided by the number of new cases of that disease identified during the same time period.

Debt forgiveness : Cancelling or rescheduling a borrower’s debts to lessen the pain of the debt burden. Debt forgiveness is increasingly viewed as the best way to relieve the financial problems facing poorer countries. Some of these countries have to pay so much in interest each year to foreign lenders that they have little money left to spend on the long-term solutions to their poverty, such as educating their workers and building a modern infrastructure. In 1998 the world Bank calculated that around 40 of the world’s poorest countries had an “unsustainably high” debt burden : the present value of their total debts was more than 220% of their exports. Debt forgiveness has potential drawbacks. For instance, there is a risk of moral hazard. If countries that borrow too much are let off their financial obligations, poor countries may feel they have nothing to lose by borrowing as much as they can. This is why policymakers often argue that debt forgiveness should come with a conditionality clause, for instance, a requirement that countries have a track record of implementing economic reforms designed to prevent a repeat of the errors that first created the need for debt forgiveness. This is the approach taken by the World Bank’s HIPC (highly indebted poor country) initiative, launched in 1996 and expanded in 1999. However, by 2003, only eight of the 38 poor countries eligible under the programme had made enough progress in reform to have some debt forgiven.

The term hydrogeomorphology can be divided into three terms hydro- means water including both surface and groundwater; geo- means the earth and morphology- is the surface expression of the features in the form of landforms. This means that the hydrogeomorphology is dealing with the aspects of water, rocks and earth’s morphological features (land). Of these water and land are most important natural resources for human beings.

Water is synonymous with life. This is a natural resource and an absolute necessity for the survival of the living beings. Human beings have an organic relationship with water. For living and livelihood, human beings solely depend upon the availability of water. They have an inalienable right on water. This is a community resource and cannot be made a tradable commodity, violating normative law of nature. Water is among the most precious gifts of nature to mankind. Most of the ancient towns of the world grew on the banks of the river, and some of the ancient civilizations are known by the names of rivers. Rivers have always been important sources of drinking water and the means of sustaining human, animal and plant life. Whenever one is dealing with water resources development and utilization, it has to be kept in mind that not only quantity of water but also quality of water is very important. The well being and development of our society is dependent on the availability of water.

1. Relative Water Content

Relative water content (RWC) is an important parameter to measure the water status of plant tissue. High RWC, under moisture stress, denotes ability of plants to tolerate drought. (Ritchi et al. 1990). RWC and water potential have often been reported as indicators of drought tolerance (Schonfeld et al. 1988).

Leaf water status may be estimated by measuring the RWC following Barrs and Weatherlay’s (1962) method as given below:

Plant hormones and growth regulators are compounds that influence flowering, aging, root growth, prevention or promotion of stem elongation, prevention of leaf emergence and/or leaf fall and many other physiological processes. These substances produce major growth changes at a very low concentration.

Hormones are endogenously produced substances in plants while plant growth regulators may be synthetic compounds (i.e. IBA and Cycocel) that mimic naturally occurring plant hormones or they may be natural hormones that are extracted from plant tissue (e.g. IAA).

These growth regulating substances, most often, are applied as a spray to foliage or as a liquid drench to soil around a plant’s base. Generally, their effects are short-lived and they may need to be re-applied in order to achieve the desired effect.

Plant growth regulating substances are normally classified into five groups viz.: (i) Auxins, (ii) Gibberellins; (iii) Cytokinins; (iv) Ethylene; and (v) Abscisic acid.

For the most part, each group contains both naturally occurring hormones as well as synthetic substances. Physiological functions of each and every group of growth regulating substances are given below in brief:

Place of Microorganisms in Living World

Haeckel’s kingdom Protista

E.H. Haeckel, 1866 proposed this concept. Apart from plant and animal kingdom, the third kingdom “Protista” was developed by him. The protista includes unicellular organisms that are typically neither plant nor animal. These organisms, the protists, include bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoa. Bacteria are referred as lower protists and others are called as higher protists.

Whittaker’s five kingdom concept

R.H.Whittaker (1969) proposed the concept of five kingdom. He divided the living things in to 5 kingdoms.

The pathogenicity of an organism varies form mild attack to severe fatal attacks. The host has many mechanisms to resist or to avoid the pathogens apart from immune systems. One or few of these will be activated when the pathogen enters into the body. Following are some of the listed natural host defense mechanisms.