eChapters

Green manure is defined as fresh organic matter/undecomposed plant material/ real organic matter, natural plant food added to the soil for the purpose of supplying plant nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF GREEN MANURES

Nonlegumes: Rape seed, buck wheat, niger, rye, oats and maize

Legumes:

Grain legumes: cowpea, mungbean, pigeon pea, soybean, khesari (Lathyrus sativus)

Dual purpose legumes: cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba). pillipesara, Sesbania speciosa.

Non grain legumes: sunnhemp, dhaincha, pillipesera (Phaseolus trilobus), stylosanthes and desmodium.

At this moment, the majority of energy is obtained from fossil fuels and requires switching over to alternative energy sources is the need of the hour. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable energy source and also have seriously negative impacts on the environment. The use of fossil fuels cause excessive global climate change because emissions of greenhouse pollutants and the formation of compounds CO_x, NO_x, SO_x, C_xH_y, ash and other organic compounds that are released into the atmosphere. The increase in greenhouse gas emission will result in global warming, climate change, environmental degradation and health problems.

Biofuel, any fuel that is derived from biomass - that is, plant or algae material or animal waste. Since such feedstock material can be replenished readily, biofuel is considered to be a source of renewable energy, unlike fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas.

Mushrooms are good as nutritious food for all ages and under all conditions of health. The mushroom is a fleshy, space-bearing organ of non-green edible fungi. Its fleshy nature of mushroom is responsible for its main attraction to human being as a source of food. Like other fruit and vegetables, mushrooms are soft textured and highly perishable in nature. Mushroom are potential sources of nutrients. They can convert nutritionally valueless substances into high fat and protein food. Mushroom proteins are comparable to muscle protein in nutritive value. Being a good source of vitamins and proteins it is considered be a distinct food. The digestibility of protein in these is 72-83%. Mushrooms are edible fungi; assume considerable importance in human diet as they are good source of non starchy carbohydrate, dietary fibre, minerals and vitamins-B and essential amino acids. Mushrooms are popular their delicacy and flavour rather that food value. However, it is now a well-established fact that they are excellent sources of vitamins and minerals (Vijaya Khader, 1988). The vitamins in mushroom are well retained during cooking, canning, and dehydration. The White button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus), Shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes), Pleurotus species (Pleurotus osteatus, P. flabellatus, P. sajor caju etc.), Paddy straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), Winter mushrooms (Flammulina velutipis), Jew’s ear mushrooms (Auricularia polytricha) are commercially cultivated species of mushroom. In India, mainly three species viz., white button, oyster or dhingari and paddy straw mushrooms are commercially cultivated at large scale.

A large number of people in developing countries have traditionally depends on products derived from plants, especially from forests, for curing human and livestock ailments. Additionally, several aromatic plants are popular for domestic and commercial uses. Collectively they are called medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). About 12.5% of the 4,22,000 plant species documented worldwide are reported to have medicinal values. With dwindling supplies from natural sources and increasing global demand, the medicinal and aromatic plants, will need to be cultivated to ensure their regular supply for processing and value added products.

The term “Medicinal and Aromatic plants” generally denotes those non-aromatic and aromatic plants, which are used for medicinal, perfumery, dye and cosmetic purposes. They are rich in secondary metabolites and are potential sources of drugs. Generally the whole plant roots, stem, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, gums and oleoresins, etc. are used.

India has been considered as treasure house of valuable medicinal and aromatic plant species. Ministry of Environment and Forests have identified and documented over 9500 plant species considering their importance in the pharmaceutical industry. In the present context of ‘back to nature’ in health care, it is relevant that these valuable plant species are not only preserved but also their cultivation developed in order to meet the entire demand of the domestic industries as also to exploit the bright prospect for export. Shift from collection to cultivation of medicinal & aromatic plants will also ensure purity, authenticity and sustainable supply of raw materials required for herbal drugs, including polyherbals.

Food technologies now have more sweeteners from which to choose than ever before. With the obesity epidemic and the public attention it currently receives, plus the increasing interest in foods with added benefits sweeteners that allow for consumer appealing labeling are of particular interest. These sweeteners fall into basic categories, those that are essentially calories free, often referred to as low-calories or intense sweeteners, and those, which are significantly reduced in calories, which may be referred to as reduced calories-sweeteners, bulk sweeteners, or sugar replaces. These sweeteners when used alone or in combination may permit such labeling as ‘low-calories’, ‘reduced-calories’, ‘light’ ‘sugar-free’ and ‘dose not promote tooth decay’.

The ideal sweeteners does not exist, it would be at least as sweet as sucrose and provide the same properties to a product as sucrose, with processing parameters similar to those of sucrose so that existing equipment can be used. It would be colourless, odourless and noncariogenic, with a clean, pleasant taste and have immediate onset and not much lingering. Solubility and stability are important. The ideal sweetener must be compatible with a wide range of food ingredients because sweetness is but one element of a complex food flavour system. Even sucrose is not perfect, being unsuitable for some applications.

Introduction

The resource conservation technologies (RCTs) is primarily focussed on resource savings through minimal tillage, ensuring soil nutrients and moisture conservation through crop residues and growth of cover crops, and adoption of spatial and temporal crop sequencing. These practices have long been practised by the farmers in the Indo Gangetic Plains (IGP) but it got eroded in recent times due to various geo-socio economic- political reasons. This region (10.5 million ha) comprises of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal and have major share in production of rice and wheat due to adoption of green revolution technologies followed by area expansion. It has been reported that rice-wheat system has strained the natural resources of this region (Swarup and Singh, 1989; Kumar and Yadav, 1993; Lal et al., 2004). In present scenario there is little scope to meet future target by earlier approaches like area expansion and intensive use of natural resources. Therefore, RCTs can be regarded as energy, water and labour efficient system to sustain soil health and production environment and produce more at less cost (Jat et al., 2012; Gathala et al., 2011b).

Major emphasis is given upon the RCTs components like zero/reduced tillage, direct seeded rice, crop residue management and crop diversification. However, other RCTs like site specific nutrient management, leaf colour chart, laser land leveller, nutrient use efficient genotypes, integrated crop and pest management provide options to the farmers as per their resource endowment.

Introduction

Plants possess complex, systematic and specific mechanisms to cope up with abiotic as well as biotic stresses in the existing environment. ‘Do plants respond to sound ? How can plants perceive sound without a hearing organ?’- are interesting queries among the scientific community. Responses of plants to different factors such as temperature, moisture, light, wind, pests and microbes are well understood. However, information on the effects of audible sound frequencies on plants are still lacking. Recent evidences suggest that audible sound stimulation can contribute to better plant growth and improved quality of plant produce. It also represents a new trigger for plant protection. Sound is an acoustic energy in the form of a mechanical wave which transmits through gases, liquids and solids. Acoustic spectrum consists of three regions, infra sound (less than 20 Hz), audible region (20-20,000 Hz) and ultrasound (greater than 20,000 Hz). Infra sound and ultrasound are used in clinical diagnosis and therapeutics.

Research on plant responses towards different stimuli started during 1880s by Charles Darwin. In 1848, Dr. Gustav Theodor Fechner, a German experimental psychologist, suggested that plants are capable of feeling emotions and that one could promote healthy growth of plants with talk, attention, attitude and affection. Later, J. C. Bose (1926), famous Indian botanist and physicist, made several studies on the effect of sound vibrations on plants. According to him, a plant treated with care and affection gives out a different vibration than a plant subjected to torture. In addition, Bose found that plants grew more quickly in pleasant music and more slowly in loud noise or harsh sounds. He also noticed that plants can “feel pain and understand affection” based on variation of cell membrane potential under different sound frequencies. Retallack (1973) also described several experiments involving plants and music.

According to G.C. Ainsworth (1973) the fungus is free-living, parasitic or mutualistic, saprotrophs, necrotrophs or biotrophs and devoid of chlorophyll. Cell wall composition very variable, majority contain chitin and glucans, reserve materials glycogen, oil and mannitol, characteristic disaccharide and trehalose. Some yeast-like but majority with thread-like filaments, hyphae, branched profusely to form the vegetative mycelium on which spores are produced, asexually or sexually, free on hyphae or enclosed in complex reproductive structures. Separated mainly on morphology of the latter.

2.1 Divisions: Myxomycota

These are wall-less and quite unusual organisms only included in the fungi as mostly studied by mycologists. Possess either a plasmodium, a mass of naked, multinucleate protoplasm, which feeds any ingesting particulate matter and moves by amoeboid cells. Both of slimy consistencies hence slime molds. Four classes:

2.1.1 Class: Acrasiomycetes (Cellular slime molds)

Assimilative phase, free living amoebae which aggregate to form a pseudoplasmodium before reproduction.

INTRODUCTION

The contribution of the church in the field of the health services has been well appreciated by all sections of the people as well as by government. Quite a few church personnel are fully involved in public health services, nutritional programmes and hygiene and sanitation programmes. There are mobile clinic and awareness programmes run in the rural areas. In the field of medical care the contribution of the Christianity is meritorious. The healing mission received some priority in the agenda of the missionaries and churches. Health centers run by Christians originally meant to serve the poor. Many of well equipped and well established hospitals render service in rural areas and slums others do not reach. Educational service of the Christianity has been a highly valued service to the nation.

CHRISTIAN MISSION HOSPITALS IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TAMIL NADU

From the middle of the nineteenth century, the mission world in Britain began to change. There were many missionaries who held university degrees. They provided a wholly new context to evangelism by their emphasis first upon the importance of education and later, by being the pioneers at least in Asia and Africa, of Western scientific hospitals, organized by missionaries, ultimately developed. The full-fledged teaching hospitals were without doubt a high point of missionary achievement. American medical missionaries who were in Sri Lanka prior to the mid-nineteenth century did not belong to the artisan or mechanic class or other lower middle-class groups. John Scudder, a physician, grandfather of the founder of the Vellore College, left for the East in 1819 and worked first in Sri Lanka before moving to India. John Scudder’s father has been described by one of his biographers, as a ‘gentleman of the old school’ and his mother it is said was a ‘lady of high culture’.

INTRODUCTION

The 21^st century has witnessed the emergence of information revolution in a dramatic way that has shaped the human lives in a new direction. Information revolution has not only made tremendous changes in the social-economic and political life of the people but also given a dramatic boost for scientific community for its right uses in their research and academic work. The society has experienced a fast change. McGarry has presented the relative rapidity of such changes in saying that progress is at glacial speed. The striking changes in the information society are also depicted by Alvin Toffler in his three books. He advocated that the chief agent of transformation of society is information and its related technologies. Moreover, it is acknowledged that information and knowledge become the principal generators of wealth in the form of educational institutions, research and development organizations, scientific establishments and information dissemination agents.

With agriculture in the present century moving rapidly away from an artisanal, labour- extensive, traditional activity towards a sophisticated, information-intensive sector of the global economy, access to information and modern communication technologies has become a necessity for the farmers of the global sphere especially in developing countries. The agriculture of the future will entail more efficient and sustainable production systems, making optimal use of land, water and other natural resources. Sustainable food production will rely more and more on agricultural information management and communication technologies.

The City of Kumbh: Temporary Township and its major concern

From antiquity Allahabad has been regarded as a centre of pilgrimage [Table 9.a.]. The number of pilgrims visiting the city during Kumbh shows a steady rise, a clear indication of its popularity over the years. The official record shows 25 lac pilgrims in 1906, the first Mela of twentieth century, the number rose to 30 lac in 1918 and by 1930 recorded an increase of nearly 60%. There was a decline however due to the World War II, in 1942.

7.1 Introduction

Agriculture production and farm incomes in India are frequently affected by natural disasters such as droughts, floods, cyclones, storms, landslides and earthquakes. Susceptibility of agriculture to these disasters is compounded by the outbreak of epidemics and man-made disasters such as fire, sale of spurious seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, price crashes etc. All these events severely affect farmers through loss in production and farm income, and they are beyond the control of the farmers. With the growing commercialization of agriculture, the magnitude of loss due to unfavorable eventualities is increasing. The question is how to protect farmers by minimizing such losses. For a section of farming community, the minimum support prices for certain crops provide a measure of income stability. But most of the crops and in most of the states MSP is not implemented. In recent times, mechanisms like contract farming and future s trading have been established which are expected to provide some insurance against price fluctuations directly or indirectly. But, agricultural insurance is considered an important mechanism to effectively address the risk to output and income resulting from various natural and manmade events. Agricultural Insurance is a means of protecting the agriculturist against financial losses due to uncertainties that may arise agricultural losses arising from named or all unforeseen perils beyond their control (AIC, 2008). Unfortunately, agricultural insurance in the country has not made much headway even though the need to protect Indian farmers from agriculture variability has been a continuing concern of agriculture policy. According to the National Agriculture Policy 2000, "Despite technological and economic advancements, the condition of farmers continues to be unstable due to natural calamities and price fluctuations". In some extreme cases, these unfavorable events become one of the factors leading to farmers suicides which are now assuming serious proportions.Agricultural insurance is one method by which farmers can stabilize farm income and investment and guard against disastrous effect of losses due to natural hazards or low market prices. Crop insurance not only stabilizes the farm income but also helps the farmers to initiate production activity after a bad agricultural year. It cushions the shock of crop losses by providing farmers with a minimum amount of protection. It spreads the crop losses over space and time and helps farmers make more investments in agriculture. It forms an important component of safety-net programmes as is being experienced in many developed countries like USA and Canada as well as in the European Union. However, one need to keep in mind that crop insurance should be part of overall risk management strategy. Insurance comes towards the end of risk management process. Insurance is redistribution of cost of losses of few among many, and cannot prevent economic loss. There are two major categories of agricultural insurance

4.1 Introduction

The developed or commercially available models can be applied for any water bodies such as fresh water lakes, ponds, rivers, estuaries and marine ecosystems. The predicted results can be compared with proved with field data and existing approved models and applies to the other such ecosystems. In this chapter, we can discuss about modeling of water bodies, water quality model, spatial discretizafion, modeling pollutants and toxicants, concentration modeling, hydrodynamic mixing zone analysis.

4.2 Modeling of Water bodies

The need for predictive water quality modeling has arisen largely as a result of increased eutrophication of lakes throughout the world (Forsberg, 1987; Canfield and Hoyer, 1988). The most common modelling approach is exemplified by the development and application of steady state, input-output models. Generally, nutrient concentrations are calculated from net inputs and chlorophyll a concentration is predicted by correlation with the limiting nutrient, most often phosphorus (Dillon and Rigler, 1975; Canfield and Bachmann, 1981; OECD, 1982).

Factors that can also influence phytoplankton biomass, such as light, climate, biological interactions and internal loading of nutrients, are not considered. Further more, the assumption that a lake is a continuously mixed system is very restrictive and only applicable at discrete times of the year. As a result, the shortcomings of such approaches include an inability to make predictions in the face of varying physical and biological conditions, and a failure to offer insights into the determinants of changing water quality.

5.1 Introduction

The water quality modeling methodologies are started from conceptual models such as defining the problem in a particular region of interest like fresh water ecosystem, coastal ecosystems, ocean ecosystems, the following methodology can be studied carefully for water quality modeling.

Identification of problems in the region of interest

Monitoring of field data using standard methods like APHA, USGS, BIS etc.

Evaluation of primary data for the toxins, higher amount of concentration from the ambient conditions

Processing of primary data to secondary data

Based on the primary data and secondary data, suitable modeling software can be used. If the temperature of the region is higher than the ambient, it should be used Qual2E, MIKE21 etc.

Modeling results can be compared with field data for calibration and validation.

17.1. Introduction

Throughout human history, the coastal plains and Lowland River valleys have usually been the most populated areas over the world (Wolanski et al., 2004). At present, about 60% of the world’s population live along the estuaries and the coast (Lindeboom, 2002). This is degrading estuarine and coastal waters through pollution, eutrophication, increased turbidity, overfishing and habitat destruction. The pollutant supply does not just include nutrients; it also includes mud from eroded soil, heavy metals, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, and a number of chemicals including new synthetic products.

The impact on estuaries is commonly still ignored when dams and irrigation farming are proposed on rivers. In addition, estuaries are often regarded as sites for future development and expansion, and have been increasingly canalized and dyked for flood protection, and their wetlands infilled for residential areas.

All these factors impact on the biodiversity and productivity and hence, the overall health of estuaries and the ecosystem services they provide to humans. They increasingly lead humans away from the possibility of ecologically sustainable development of the coastal zone. Integrated coastal zone management plans are drawn up worldwide but, in the presence of significant river input, most are bound to fail because they commonly deal only with local, coastal issues, and do not consider the whole river catchment as the fundamental planning unit. It is as if the land, the river, the estuary, and the sea were not part of the same system. When dealing with estuaries and coastal waters, in most countries land-use managers, water-resources managers, and coastal and fisheries managers do not cooperate effectively due to administrative, economic and political constraints, and the absence of a forum where their ideas and approaches are shared and discussed (Wolanski et al., 2004). 

Mangroves Definition

A mangrove is tree, shrub, palm or ground fern, generally exceeding one and a half meter in height that normally grows above mean sea level in the intertidal zone of marine coastal environment and estuarine regions of the tropical and subtropical coastlines (Duke 1992). The mangrove is also defined as assemblages of salt tolerant trees and shrubs. Mangroves are taxonomically heterogenous and more related to environment than terrestrial or aquatic plants.

The term ‘mangroves’ is used to define both a group of plants and a community. To avoid confusion, Macnae (1968) proposed the term ‘mangal’ for the mangrove forest community, and the term ‘mangroves’ for the plants. Other terms for the mangrove forest community are coastal woodland, oceanic rainforest, intertidal forest, tidal forest, blue carbon forest, mangrove forest, and mangrove swamp.

Generally, mangrove species are grouped into two types: Exclusive and Non-Exclusive. The exclusive species are limited to the mangrove habitat, and they are also referred to as strict mangroves, obligate mangroves or true mangroves. The non-exclusive species are mainly distributed in a terrestrial or aquatic habitat, but they also occur in the mangrove habitats and they are referred to as semi-mangroves, back mangroves or mangrove associates. Tansley and Fristch (1905) are the first to introduce the criteria to classify mangrove species into true mangroves and mangrove associates. Tomlinson (1986) used rigid criteria to distinguish true mangroves from mangrove associates. In his criteria, true mangroves possess all or most of the following features:

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN LIVESTOCK ENTERPRISES

GENDER AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY: The women and men enjoy equal status in the law of the constitution, though there exists a wide difference as looked upon by the society. This gender gap is a socially constructed attribute as being male and females are assigned roles and responsibilities in respect to one’s gender. Gender disparity is a serious concern in all sectors and must be addressed immediately for the development of the country. To address gender issues, it is imperative to understand different fundamental gender concepts to deal with it effectively.

Gender: Gender identifiers social relations between men and women. Gender refers to the relationship between men and women, boys and girls and how this is socially constructed. Gender roles are dynamic and changed over time. Gender determined, what is expected, allowed, and valued in a man or woman in a different context.

Sex: Sex identifies the biological difference between men and women, such as-women can give birth and men provide sperm. Sex roles are universal. These are universal, obvious and generally permanent. It is what, we are born with and does not change over time, differs from place to place.

Introduction

The livestock occupies a significant niche in the social fabric of the Indian subcontinent from the dawn of civilization. During the initial days of civilization, animals served human society in many ways. The livestock is not only producing high biological value products i.e., milk, meat but also provide manure for maintaining soil health, draught power for crop production, wool and fiber for apparel industry, low cost means of transport in rural and desert areas, companion for sports and of course a "readily disposable asset" for any kind of emergency expenditure. Hence, livestock represents one of the major driving forces for the growth of the rural economy. As a result, the livestock industry becomes one of the niche sectors of the national economy to propel faster growth along with securing the livelihood of millions of people. During the twentieth century, balanced ration was the key focal point of animal nutrition research either for enhancing the productivity or managing the livestock economy through interventions of knowledge in the areas of improvement of poor quality roughages, bypass protein, bypass fat, mineral supplements, complete feed blocks, vitamins, area specific mineral mixture, feed additives such as antibiotics, ionophores, hormones etc. However, during the beginning of the twenty first century, several issues appeared pertaining to the livestock sector such as feed quality and safety, designer animal products, healthy animal products, ecological treatment for digestive disorder, organic animal production, residues of antibiotics, hormones and heavy metals in accordance with the consumer preference and awareness. In the light of concerns on "transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from animal to human", several nations have imposed bans on application of antibiotics as feed additives. Keeping in view the above perspective, research is underway around the world to find alternatives to antibiotics to guard the gastrointestinal of animals without compromising productivity or product quality of livestock.

Sources of agriculture/ Livestock finance
Finance for agriculture can be obtained from formal and informal sources Formal sources
Credit co-operatives
Commercial banks
Government
Regional Rural Banks
Informal sources
Money lender
Friends and relatives
Traders
Landlords
3 R’s OF CREDIT
To estimate the rationality of a loan, it is essential to know credit analysis.

Behavior can be defined as an expressed course of action produced in organisms in response to stimulus from a given situation. Alternatively, behaviour may be defined as the response by the animals to internal and external stimuli. Behaviour is a significant indicator of the health of animals. The goal of all behavioral responses is common i.e. to survive and reproduce.

The primary function of cardiovascular system is to maintain blood circulation so that normal exchange of fluid, electrolyte, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient
and excretory and secretory end products can take place between tissue and blood. Failure of circulation to any degree interferes with the transport and
exchange mechanism.

A healthy life is ensured by having access to safe, nutritious and balanced food. World health organisation (WHO) ensures its contribution in developing food safety systems that are sustainable to reduce health risks from farm to consumer. Thus, safe food, its quality and consumer protection are the priorities of this organisation (FAO and WHO, 2021)

Artificial Insemination is a very important tool that caters to propagation of high-quality germplasm and breed improvement. It is also economical as it aids in breeding without the necessary to maintain the adult bucks cutting the input cost. However, the bucks maintained for production of semen and AI should be free of any diseases and in specifically venereal diseases. Venereal diseases are not so uncommon in livestock, and they cause a variety of symptoms including orchitis, abortions, still birth, vulvovaginitis etc., leading to infertility in breeding animals. Venereal diseases are infectious in nature and they are transmitted mainly through semen, feed-water, AI gun, artificial vagina, fomites etc. Due to venereal diseases, infertility, orchitis, epididymitis, vasculitis etc. occurs in bucks and leads to abortions and still birth in does (Ahmed et al, 2010; Beena et al, 2017), because they are directly linked with the economic output (Sharma et al, 2008; Azawi et al, 2010) and overall health of the animal affecting the productivity significantly (Menzies, 2011). To keep abortions and other venereal diseases at bay, it is important to raise disease free breeding bucks that deliver clean-semen for natural service or AI operation. Abortion rate between 2 to 5% indicates its endemic nature and abortion level exceeding 5% requires aggressive investigation (Menzies, 2011). Infectious agents that include viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites etc.; as well as noninfectious cause can lead to infertility in goats (Moeller, 2001; Szeredi et al, 2006; Smith and Sherman, 2009). Many infectious causes are known to mankind that leads to trans-venereal diseases in goats including Brucella melitensis, Chlamydiosis, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Toxoplasmosis, Coxiella burnetii etc. There are numerous viruses such as

Abstract

In any extension organization, performance appraisal is critical for human resource management. Extension professionals or employees will have a better grasp of their roles and obligations, as well as recommendations on how to improve their performance, if the performance appraisal process is formal and well-structured. The Logical Framework Analysis (LFA) is also described as the project-planning matrix, is a planning, monitoring and evaluation technique for extension projects. The steps in the performance appraisal process are as follows: setting performance benchmarks, communicating standards to employees, evaluating actual performance, comparing actual to desired performance, discussing the results and making a conclusion. Critical Incidence Technique, confidential report, weighted checklists, visual rating scales, behaviorally anchored rating scales, forced choice approach, Management by Objectives (MBO) etc. are commonly used performance appraisal methods. The essential components of Logical Framework Analysis, on the other hand, comprise of hierarchy of objectives, objectively verifiable indicators, verification means and critical assumptions and risks. The logical framework isn’t a universal remedy for all development project problems, but it can help policymakers and financial agencies/donors to understand what a project is trying to achieve. Not only that, LFA may also describe in simple terms how the project will achieve its goal.

A conflict is a fight or a clash of interest, opinion, or even principles. Conflict can never be eliminated from the society; as there are different reasons of conflict. It may vary from personal, racial, class, caste, political, international and many more.

Conflict in a group often follows a specific course. Routine group interaction is first disrupted by an initial conflict within the group. It is often caused by internal differences of opinion, disagreements between its members, or scarcity of resources available to the group. Some of the common sorts of conflicts are:

• Inter-group conflict is conflict between two or more groups.
• Organization conflict is discord caused by opposition of needs, values, and interests between people working together.
• Role conflict involves incompatible demands placed upon a person in a manner that makes accomplishing both troublesome.
• Social conflict is the struggle for supremacy or autonomy between social classes.
• Conflict of interest is involvement in multiple interests which could possibly corrupt the motivation or decision-making.

Introduction

A community radio station is characterized by its ownership and programming and the community it is authorized to serve. It is owned and controlled by anon- profit organization whose structure provides for membership, management, operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large. Its programming should be based on community access and participation and should reflect the special interests and needs of the listenership it is licensed to serve.

While community radio is a form of public-service broadcasting, it has an approach that is different from conventional broadcasting. Its specific focus is to make its audience the main protagonists, by their involvement in all aspects of its management and programme production, and by providing them with programming that will help them in the development and social advancement of their community.

Panchayati Raj is the oldest system of local government in the Indian subcontinent. Panchayati Raj Institutions have been in existence in India for a long time. In the old Sanskrit scriptures, word 'Panchayatan' has been mentioned which means a group of five persons, including a spiritual man. In the Rigveda, there is a mention of Sabha, Samiti and Vidatha as local selfunits. These were the democratic bodies at the local level. The king used to get the approval of these bodies regarding certain functions and decisions.

After independence, as a development initiative, India had implemented the Community Development Programmes (CDP) on the eve of Gandhi Jayanti, the 2nd October, 1952.The National Extension Service followed the Community Development Programme as the vehicle through which idea of Community Development would be worked and to build up an administrative system which can tackle the welfare problems of growth at the local level. The Balvantray Mehta Study Team was appointed in January 1957 to study and to make report on the Community Development Projects and National Extension Service .The Team brought to focus the areas mentioned below:

11.1. Tea

11.1.1. Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis theivora

Symptoms

• Adults and nymphs suck sap from buds, young leaves and tender stems.

• Punctures appear as reddish brown spots.

• Leaves curl up, badly deformed and shoots dry up.

Management

• Spray clothianidin 50 WDG 120 g/ha or thiacloprid 21.7 SC 375 ml/ha or thiamethoxam 25 WG 100g/ha or bifenthrin 8 SC 500 ml/ha.

12.1. Tea

12.1.1. Algal leaf spot: Cephaleuros virescens

Symptoms

• Leaves develop lesions that are roughly circular, raised and purple to reddish brown.

Management

• Removal of infected portions and spraying of Bordeaux mixture

• Improving soil nutrient status by application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

12.1.2. Brown blight, grey blight: Colletotrichum sp., Pestalotiopsis sp.

1. Introduction

Tuber crops are important group of crop species which produce tubers that are used for human food and animal feed. The popular tuber crops include cassava, sweet potato, greater yam, white yam, lesser yam, taro, tannia, elephant foot yam, yam bean, coleus etc. They contribute substantial amount of cheap energy coupled with high quality nutrition for more than two million people living in developing countries. Taro is one of the oldest cultivated tuber crop grown for its edible corms and leaves. It is an important tropical tuber crop, used as a staple food or subsistence food by millions of people in the developing countries in Asia, Africa and Central America. 

1. Introduction

Zinc is an important micro-nutrient for human population and its deficiency can cause major diseases, mortality and thus becomes a major challenge in public health care systems of the developing nations. It was estimated that a major part of population is affected with deficiency of zinc (Combs, 2001) which causes lower growth, abnormal or decrease in infant birth, lowers the energy of body, decreases the power to lower the deadly infections, increase the mortality rate in children etc. (Gibson 2012; Krebs et al., 2014). Zinc also catalyzes various enzymes such as RNA polymerase, superoxidase dismutase and helps in working efficiency of cellular proteins. 

1. Introduction

Nursery raising is as old as agriculture and has many advantages compared to direct seeding in special situations like vegetable cultivation and other high value plants. There are several types of nurseries to cater different crop species like ornamental plants, fruit plants, forest plants and vegetables, although the fundamental concept of all these nurseries is the same. With the advent of drip system, soilless media and plasticulture the nursery system has also become more modern and automated. A nursery is a area or place for growing and looking after young seedlings/plants until they are ready for planting in the main field. 

1. Introduction

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is a major vegetable and spice crop due to its high consumption, nutritional and cash value to farmers and consumers. It is cultivated almost in whole world as consume in the form of green and red ripe fruits. China is the world leader in chilli production followed by India, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Thailand, and Turkey. India is the second largest exporter in the world of dry chilli and its powder. Fruits of chilli are used as fresh salad, cooked vegetable, pickles, souces hot spices in powder form (Parey et al., 2013) and having many medicinal values (Nadkarni, 1927). Fresh green fruits of peppers and red peppers are the major source of vitamin A, C and antioxidant compounds, besides these also found minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, iron, manganese, sodium, zinc and copper. 

1. Introduction

Therapeutic plants have different metabolites in them because of which they are generally utilized in the whole world by individuals to fix different illnesses. India has a rich history of involving many plants for therapeutic purposes. Therapeutic plants are assuming an exceptionally dynamic part in conventional medications for the treatment of different afflictions. India is a rich wellspring of restorative plants because of the varieties in soil, their heights, and other ecological and geological conditions. India’s utilization of plants for medical services goes back nearly 5000 years, when Ayurveda systematized around 8000 natural cures by utilizing plants. Root and tuber crops possess a striking situation in the food security of the creating scene because of their high caloric worth and sugar content. Some of them are as of now under development; however different species are developing wild as a dismissed gathering of financial plants. A portion of the tuberous species is significant due to their restorative as well as modern application. 

Introduction In modern agriculture, soft resources like knowledge and skills are sometimes even more crucial than hard resources like inputs. In the 21st century, agriculture has to overcome a number of obstacles, including feeding an expanding population while a declining rural labour force, producing more feedstocks for a huge bioenergy market, supporting the overall development of many developing countries heavily dependent on agriculture, adopting more efficient and sustainable production techniques, and adapting to climate change (Colle, 2011). In order to make efficient and effective agricultural decisions, farmers are increasingly adopting information (Cash, 2001). Compared to the current availability of roughly 0.1 million personnel, the required number of extension agent who worked in field level is anticipated in between 1.3 to 1.5 million.

Electrocardiograph, electrocardiography and electrocardiogram are the three terms commonly associated with ECG or EKG. Though, these terms are interdependent, there is clear differentiation and demarcation between these terms and should not be used as synonym.

Electrocardiograph

The term “Electrocardiograph” refers to an instrument or machine that records surface potentials associated with the electrical activity of the heart to generate a graphic representation, the electrocardiogram (Fig.1).

1 Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis is the botanical name of

 a) Cabbage c) Cauliflower

 b) Knol-Khol d) None of these

 2 Cauliflower was introduced in India in 1822 by ________ from Garden, London.

 a) Dr. Jemson b) Dr. Kalloo

 c) Herbalist Dodens d) None of these

1 What is the best time to sow onion seeds in Northern Hilly regions?

 a) January to February b)  March to April

 c) May to June  d) September to November

 2 Which type of soil is best for onion cultivation?

 a) Sandy loam    b)  Clay loam

 c) Alluvial soil  d) Both a and b

 3 What should be the pH range for onion cultivation?

 a) 4.4-5.0    b)  5.5-6.5

 c) 6.0-7.5    d)  6.5-7.5

Agnatha consists of cyclostomes, conodonts and ostracoderms. Among recent animals, cyclostomes are sister to all jawed vertebrates known as gnathostomes. They have little economic importance. It includes the oldest known craniate fossils and has many primitive characteristics.

The oldest fossil of agnathans appeared in the Cambrian period and two groups the lampreys (Hyperoartii) and the hagfish (Myxini or Hyperotreti) comprising about 120 species still survive today (Fig. 6.1).

Hagfishes are considered members of the subphylum Vertebrata, because they secondarily lost vertebrae; before this event was inferred from molecular and developmental data, the group Craniata was created by Linnaeus to reference hagfish and vertebrates.

L - Ascorbic acid: It is a white crystalline compound with a slightly acidic taste. It is readily soluble in water, alcohol, glycerin, propylene glycol and is insoluble in oils, fats, ether, benzene, chloroform.

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labeling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labeling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or discriptivematter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stenciled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of ant food package.

Social Control

Social control denotes the influence wielded by the public or society aimed at fostering the collective welfare of the group. It entails mechanisms that induce individuals to adhere to societal norms and moral standards, thereby guiding their behavior towards socially acceptable actions. The imperative role of social control lies in upholding societal stability, which is indispensable given the inherent variability of human nature and the pervasive impact of environmental factors.

Various scholars have offered insights into the concept of social control:

According to Mannheim, social control encompasses the array of methods employed by a society to shape human behavior, thereby preserving a predetermined social order.

Introduction

For the analysis of electrical power system, different values are required, thus, per unit system provides the value for voltage, current, power, impendence, and admittance. The Per Unit System also makes the calculation easier as all the values are taken in the same unit. The per-unit system is mainly used in the circuit where variation in voltage occurs. The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit to the base or reference value in the same unit. Any quantity is converted into per unit quantity by dividing the numeral value by the chosen base value of the same dimension. The per-unit value is dimensionless.

Introduction

Dr. C.L. Fortescue presented a paper in 1918 in which he proved that a system of several vectors or quantities may be resolved into equal different symmetrical groups or systems. The method of symmetrical components is a general one applicable to any poly-phase system. Because of the widespread use of 3-phase systems and the greater familiarity which electrical engineers have with them, symmetrical component equations will be developed for three phases.

The useful expression showing relationship between unsymmetrical and symmetrical component:

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally friendly step towards pest control based on a combination of common practices. IPM programs use up-to-date and comprehensive information about the life cycle of pests and their interactions with the environment. This information, along with existing pest control methods, is used to control pest damage in the most cost-effective manner and with the least possible risk to people, property and the environment. The IPM methods can be used in agricultural and non agricultural areas, including homes, gardens and workplaces. IPM uses all pest control options, but not limited to the appropriate use of pesticides. In contrast, organic food production shares many of the same concepts as IPM, but limits the use of pesticides to those that come from natural sources rather than synthetic chemicals.

IPM is a set of pest management assessments, choices, and actions rather than a single approach of pest control. Growers using integrated pest management (IPM) that recognize the possibility of insect invasion employ a four-tiered strategy including establishing action levels, keep a look out for and recognize pests, its prevention and control.

IPM establishes an action threshold—a point at which insect populations or environmental circumstances suggest that pest control intervention is necessary—before implementing any pest control measures. It’s not always necessary to take action when one pest is seen. Future decisions about pest treatment must take into account the degree to which pests will pose an economic risk. Set thresholds through systematic, regular, and consistent monitoring. Develop thresholds that are appropriate for your circumstance. Modifying thresholds, management and monitoring techniques if necessary. For the majority of pest monitoring techniques, quantitative thresholds can be created, such as treating when specific circumstances are favorable for the onset of a disease or when the number or percentage of invertebrate pests or damaged plant parts surpasses predetermined limits. A good monitoring procedure involves knowledge of pest and beneficial species likely to be present, awareness of the critical crop development stages, good sampling and recording techniques and an estimate of infestation level.

Cloudy Swelling

Swelling of cells occur with hazy appearance due to a mild injury. The cells take more water due to defect in sodium pump leading to swollen mitochondria which gives granular cytoplasmic appearance. It is the first reaction of cell to the mildest injury. Cloudy swelling is a reversible reaction (Figs. 4.1 & 4. 2).

Etiology

• Can be caused by even mildest injury.

• Any factor causing interference with metabolism of the cell like bacterial toxins, fever, diabetes, circulatory disturbances etc.

Macroscopic features

• Organ becomes enlarged and rounded.

• Weight of organ increases.

• Bulging on cut surfaces.

• Amount of fluid increases in organ.

Microscopic features

• Swelling of cells, edges become rounded.

• Increased size of cells.

• Cytoplasm of the cells becomes hazy/cloudy due to increased granularity.

• Can be seen in liver, kidney and muscles.

The blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) is an evergreen or perennial deciduous shrub that is a member of the Ericaceae family and it is native to North America. It is oblat at maturity and forms dark blue color. Blueberry is also known as “the king of berries,” have real blue fruits, which is very rare in nature (Chu et al., 2018). Tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates make up the majority of the distribution of blueberries. The United States, Chile, Canada, Spain, China, Japan and Morocco are the top producer in the world (Yousuf et al., 2016). Traditionally, 58% of the world fresh blueberries are consumed in North America. The lowbush and highbush varieties combine produced 850,886 tonnes of blueberries in 2020. The United States alone produced around 35% and Peru for 21%. (FAOSTAT 2022).

According to the South Africa Berry Producers’ Association, blueberries were originally brought to South Africa in the 1970s and are currently one of the country’s fastest growing agricultural sectors. There are many places where blueberries are grown, with the Western Cape produced around (60%) followed by Limpopo (15%), North-West (10%), Gauteng (8%), Eastern Cape (4%), Free State (2%) and Mpumalanga (1%) (Steyn et al., 2022). Federick Coville of the United States Department of Agriculture began the first blueberry domestication in 1908. (USDA). High and low bushes are the most widely grown kind of blueberry, however rabbiteyes are only significant in South and North America. High and low bushes hybrids are very common in the upper Midwest of the United States. The main growing countries for north high bush are Australia, Germany, and France.

Introduction Farmer Producer Company (FPC) is a dynamic form of farmer collective that enables strong backward and forward linkage to the member farmer, leading to enhanced socio-economic status amongst the farming community. As of March 31, 2019, there were 7,374 FPCs with a total of 860.18 crore in Paid-Up Capital (PUC). With a budget of 6,865 crore, the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare announced in 2021 central scheme to support 10,000 farmer producer organisations. The Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC), the National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), and f lagship programmes like the Agriculture Investment Fund (AIF) have all contributed to expanding farmers' access to capital (www.livemint.com).

FPCs are effective tools that give smallholder farmers more influence over the trading markets. This improves agricultural output and raises the revenues of small-scale farmers. To fully realise the potential of FPCs, cluster-based business organisations must acknowledge the inherent difficulties that they face and understand how to avoid common management mistakes.

Branding scenario of successful FPCs

There have been very few Farmer Producer Companies (FPCs) in India that have been running their businesses professionally and have become sustainable organisations over the years with well-established market linkages. Sahyadri Farmer Producer Company (Nashik, Maharashtra), Indian Organic Producer Company (Kerala), Bhangar Vegetable Producer Company (West Bengal), Madhya Pradesh Women’s Poultry Producer Company Pvt. Ltd. (Madhya Pradesh), Nachalur Farmers Producer Company Limited (Tamil Nadu), Maha Gujarat Agri Cotton Producer Company Ltd. (Gujarat), etc. are some of them, to name a few. A lot of sincere efforts have been put into strengthening their marketing linkages, viz. grading, processing, packaging, branding, distribution, etc. All the FPCs have been able to garner a significant market share because of their immaculate branding exercise. Their success has proved the fact that mere branding won’t guarantee large-scale consumer acceptance and it is brand positioning which is the required engine to drag the product towards consumers.

The current study focused to investigate the significance of AgNOR count in diagnosis of canine mammary tumour and its correlation with histopathological evaluation. A total of 53 cases suspected for canine mammary tumour were presented to Veterinary Clinical Complex, DUVASU Mathura from January 2021 to April 2022, out of these 42 cases were screened as neoplastic while 11 were non- neoplastic based on cytological examination. 24 tissue samples were collected out of 42 neoplastic cases during surgical procedure under general anaesthesia for further detailed examination by the approval of Institutional Animal Ethics Committee vide application number IAEC/22/22. AgNOR staining revealed that carcinoma solid had highest number of AgNOR followed by malignant myoepithelioma and fibrosarcoma. AgNOR count gives an assessment of cell kinetics and is directly related to proliferative activity of cells.

A diverse microbial population colonizes the sterile mammalian gastrointestinal tract during and after the birth. This organized and long-lasting process of colonization by microorganisms has developed into flourishing relationships creating diverse environment within the host gut (Mazmanian et. al. 2005). There are various factors that affect the optimum colonization of gut microbiome and their normal functioning on various organ systems of the host body directly or indirectly. The gut microbiome comprises of a complex combination of microbes (Mezouar et. al. 2018). The mammalian gastro-intestinal tract harbors this complex ecosystem in equilibrium with the host immune system. The most magnificent feature of this commensal relationship is that the host not only tolerates but has also evolved to require colonization by commensal microorganisms for its own development and health. There are various factors that affect the optimum colonization of gut microbiome and their normal functioning on various organ systems of the host body directly or indirectly. The process of colonization is a two way interaction between the host and the microorganisms.

The escalating global demand for livestock products, driven by rapid population growth and rising per capita consumption, presents significant challenges for the agricultural sector (Moreau and Jordan, 2005). Traditional livestock production methods are becoming inadequate to meet this demand sustainably. Biotechnology offers novel solutions to enhance productivity, improve animal health, and ensure environmental sustainability (Schmitt and Henderson, 2005). This review aims to explore the role of biotechnology in livestock, focusing on key innovations and their implications for the future of animal agriculture.

1. Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering has revolutionized the field of animal science by enabling precise modifications of the livestock genome to enhance desirable traits and reduce undesirable ones.

1.1 Transgenic Technology

A mouse was the first successful transgenic animal followed by pigs, sheep, cattle, and rabbits (Shakweer et al., 2023). Transgenic animals are created by inserting foreign genes that encode specific traits, such as growth hormone genes to enhance growth rates or disease resistance genes to reduce susceptibility to infections (Hammer et al., 1985). For instance, transgenic cattle have been engineered to produce milk with modified protein content (Zhang et al., 2019), improving its nutritional profile for human consumption (Brophy et al., 2003). Further, cattle genetically engineered to express human lysozyme in their milk have shown enhanced antimicrobial properties, making the milk safer for consumption (Moreau and Jordan, 2005). These modifications not only boost productivity but also improve the quality of livestock products, making them healthier and more nutritious.