eChapters

Training and pruning of horticultural crops is very important practice to obtain a strong frame work of tree and sustained productivity. It is necessary to understand the various terms used to make the subject more comprehendible.

Crotch: It is the angle made by the scaffold limb to the trunk or the secondary branch to the scaffold limb.

Head: The point on the trunk from which first branch arises.

Leader: It is the main stem growing from ground level up to the tip dominating all other branches.

Low head trees: Trees in which scaffold branches arise within 60-70 cm height from the ground level.

High head trees: Trees in which the scaffold branch arise 120 cm above the trunk.

Scaffold branches: The main branches arising from the head are known as scaffold branches.

Canopy manipulation in fruit crops has a seasonal and a life-time development pattern and have lifelong advantage and disadvantage. The unmanaged canopy of fruit trees poses many difficulties i.e. difficulty in spray, pruning and hand harvesting, poor light penetration and interception throughout the canopy. Low early light interception, leaf area index and fraction of land covered by canopy, leading to delayed and poor cropping.

Abstract

Traditionally remote sensing technology has been widely used in the mapping and change detection of vegetation features. Of late research has shown that remote sensing technology can be successfully employed for retrieval of biophysical parameters of vegetation, either by statistical techniques or by employing radiative transfer models (RTMs). This paper gives an introduction to leaf and canopy RTMs, especially about PROSAIL, which is the most commonly used model. It reviews different techniques for inverting RTM models, their merits and performance comparison. The main techniques briefly described are iterative optimization, look-up table, artificial neural network, genetic algorithm and support vector machine. At the end, it gives examples of applications which use canopy biophysical parameters retrieved by inverting RTM.

Keywords: Radiative transfer, PROSAIL, Inversion, Vegetation

1.0 Introduction

Accurate quantitative estimation of vegetation biophysical variables is useful for a large variety of agricultural, ecological, and meteorological applications (Houborg et al., 2007). The spatial and temporal distribution of these variables are important inputs into models quantifying the exchange of energy and matter between the land surface and the atmosphere, developing better yield prediction models and detecting abiotic stresses at regional scales. Among the many vegetation characteristics leaf area index, leaf chlorophyll content and leaf water content are of prime importance (Bacour et al., 2006; Houborg et al., 2007).

Capacity building represents a fundamental process through which individuals, organizations, and societies develop, strengthen, and maintain their abilities to perform functions, solve problems, and achieve objectives effectively over time. This multidimensional concept encompasses the enhancement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutional arrangements that enable entities to fulfill their mandates and respond to emerging challenges. The United Nations Development Programme defines capacity building as the process by which individuals, organizations, and societies obtain, strengthen, and maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives. This definition emphasizes the dynamic and sustainable nature of capacity building, highlighting its role not merely as a one-time intervention but as an ongoing process of organizational and individual growth. The conceptual foundation of capacity building rests on the understanding that sustainable development and organizational effectiveness require more than temporary fixes or external assistance. True capacity building involves creating endogenous capabilities that can be sustained and enhanced over time without continuous external support. This approach

Introduction

In this era of international competitiveness of knowledge economy, there is an emergent need for identifying new knowledge streams likely to emerge for mapping the directions for transition of knowledge from industry to information technology. National Knowledge Commission, Government of India has undertaken a survey of agricultural sector for exploring and discovering the dynamic role of innovation of knowledge for growth and competitiveness and recommended for ascertaining the role of the Governmental factors as innovation enablers in development of Indian economy (Anon, 2006). The knowledge network and development of knowledge infrastructure in the field of information and communication technology lead for knowledge generation, knowledge transfer and it’s preservation as intellectual property right which will support for adoption of effective knowledge management practices and provide guidelines for envisioning the policy makers to formulate appropriate plans in the filed of research and development.

To combat malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, nutrition-sensitive agriculture is a food-based strategy to agricultural development that emphasizes dietary diversity, fortification, and consumption of nutrient-rich foods. This strategy recognizes the importance of consuming a wide range of foods for optimal nutrition and acknowledges the social and economic significance of the food and agriculture industries in supporting rural livelihoods (WHO, 2014)

The overarching goal of nutrition-sensitive agriculture is to enhance the ability of the global food system to produce nutritious outcomes. An increasing number of governments, donor agencies, and development organizations are endorsing nutrition-sensitive agriculture as a means to achieve their developmental objectives. However, relying solely on nutrition-specific interventions falls short of meeting global targets for improving nutrition. Agriculture, with its significant potential to influence nutrition outcomes, must also play a role. 

India’s journey through the 75 years of independence and its splendid achievements are acclaimed by the Government of India through its initiative, Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav. Since independence, the nation has traversed a great distance and achieved feats in various spheres, such as agriculture, science, technology, art and culture, to name a few. Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav commemorates 75 glorious years of progressive India and its rich history, diverse population, magnificent culture and great achievements. The Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi’s, through this campaign, envisioned the foundation of a self-reliant India, and he said, “The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav means elixir of energy of independence; elixir of inspirations of the warriors of freedom struggle; elixir of new ideas and pledges; and elixir of Aatmanir bharta. Therefore, this Mahotsav is a festival of awakening the nation a festival of fulfilling the dream of good governance, and a festival of global peace and development”

1 . The government of India, to celebrate the 75th anniversary of India’s independence, organised a series of events under the campaign Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav. 

Training

Training represents activities that teach employees how to better perform their jobs. Training is a powerful tool in the hands of development professional to catalyze human resources. Training is a process of acquiring specific skills to perform ajob better.

Training as the act of increasing the skills of an employee for doing a particular job

Training always aim at lasting improvement on the job. It is primarily organized not for learning more but to behave differently in own endeavors

“Activities which develop individual knowledge, talents, skills, and behaviour and improve institutional structures and processes so that the organization may efficiently accomplish its mission and goals in a sustainable manner” it refers as a capacity building. One of the crucial elements of capacity building is training.

Training for Development

Training is becoming an integral component of HRD. It has developed into one of the elements that allows any institution to produce its personnel who are the most productive and qualified.

The livelihoods of millions of rural households in the semi-arid areas depend mainly on natural resources such as soil, rainwater, vegetation, livestock and the like. The major source of livelihood in these areas solely depends on the arrival, distribution and cessation of monsoons, which are erratic and ill distributed. However, management of natural resources like soil and vegetation in a way that these are used to optimally to produce maximum output. This requires new knowledge, better skills and improved management strategies. In this context, building the capacity of the rural households particularly the youth holds key to improving productivity and profitability ot the enterprise. Keeping these in view, the National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) sub project on “Sustainable Rural Livelihoods through Enhanced Farming Systems Productivity and Efficient Support Systems in Rainfed Areas” being implemented by a consortium led by CRIDA has introduced several interventions aimed at involving rural youth right from the beginning of the project.  The project is being implemented in eight backward districts (Adilabad, Anantapur, Kadapa, Khammam, Mahabubngar, Nalgonda, Rangareddy and Warangal) of Andhra Pradesh in selected clusters of villages.

Fisheries and aquaculture sector have been increasingly recognized for their essential contribution to global food security and nutrition. In 2020, total global catches in inland waters were 11.47 million tonnes and India stands top in the world with 1.8 million tonnes. India has witnessed remarkable growth in fish production in the last couple of years and stands second in world aquaculture production. The total fish production during 20-21 is estimated at 14.7 million metric tonnes (MMT) with a contribution of 11.25 MMT from inland sector and 3.48 MMT from marine sector. During FY 2020-21, export of marine products stood at 1.15 MMT and valued at Rs. 43,717.26 crores despite the market uncertainties raised by the Covid-19 pandemic outbreak. The inland open water resources of India are the life line of country?s vast population and provide nutritional and livelihood security besides other innumerable economic, social and ecological services. In addition to India, countries of Mekong cooperations including Myanmar, LaoPDR, Vietnam, Copyright: New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, India. Commercial Use will call for Legal Action. Cambodia and Thailand contribute significantly to the Asian Fish production. As per FAO (2022) report, a number of Asian countries majorly contribute to the Inland capture fisheries production including India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Cambodia have reported a steady or decline in fish catch, since the last few decades. Though there are several potential threats behind this declining fish production trend, major is linked to water availability, pollution, overfishing and climate change. 

Introduction
Animal sector is growing very fast particularly in India as people’s purchasing power is increasing day by day. With increase in income, people’s dietary habit is shifting towards more animal origin products. The use of antibiotics for animal food production is growing very fast and India is the 4th largest country in the world regarding consumption of antibiotics in veterinary and animal husbandry sector. There is urgent need of AMR mitigation strategies to reduce the effect on human and animal health. As per the World Bank AMR can affect the global GDP upto 3.8% by 2050. Most of the countries in the world are very cautious regarding antibiotic residues and rejecting the livestock products which lead to economic loss. Many world agencies/forum such as CodexAMR Guidelines, UN Political Declaration on AMR Guidelines, Global Leaders Group on AMR reiterated judicious use of antibiotics. All-India Network Project on AMR inLivestock and Fisherieswas started in India to reduce the effect of AMR by educational awareness, adoption at field level, surveillance system and diagnosis but it didn’t meet out the desired outcome. Capacity building programmes in the field of AMR by training, reform in curriculum, collaboration from different fields of professionals can mitigate the harmful effect of AMR. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), education and training play pivotal roles in translating knowledge into practical implementation, warranting the inclusion of Antimicrobial Use and AMR as integral components in professional education, postgraduate training, and continuing education within the food and agricultural sectors Training Strategies It involve Antimicrobial Stewardship training for healthcare professionals, public awareness campaigns, farmer education, and veterinary training on responsible antimicrobial use. Other critical elements include fostering collaboration through professional networks, building surveillance capacity, utilizing AI-driven tools for better decision-making, and promoting hygiene and infection prevention to reduce infection incidence and the need for antibiotics.
Training for Healthcare Professionals
There is substantial evidence that both healthcare workers and members of the public have knowledge gaps about appropriate use of antibiotics and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Surveillance is a prerequisite to estimate the magnitude of the AMR burden and to establish any intervention strategies, such as antimicrobial stewardship. In order to launch successful intervention approaches through cooperative efforts from different stakeholders (e.g., international agencies, human and veterinary medicine sectors, agriculture and animal production industries, and consumers), the existing knowledge gap needs to be addressed first.

Abstract

The Stree Shakthi Groups (SHGs) were launched in Karnataka during 2000-01 aimed at improving the overall development of rural women in Karnataka. A review of the progress achieved by these illeterate or less educated, hither to continued to be economically dependent with no voice in decision making, is nothing short of a miracle. With an enrollment of one and a half million in 5000 villages, their savings and borrowings run into hundreds of crores and employment opportunities are provided to lakhs of farm women. Apart from agriculture related activities, some of them have also involved in some unconventional, income generating activites. Economic empowerment has emboldened these beneficiaries to not only fight against social evils but also win their battles. Overall, SHGs have transformed the life of rural women treatmendously in a positive direction.

Capacity Building is the improvement in an individual or organization’s facility or capability to produce and perform. Since the year 1950s, international organizations, governments, non-governmental organizations and communities use the concept of capacity building as part of “social and economic development “ in states and national plans. The Agriculture Sector in India occupies the centre stage to promote inclusive growth, enhance rural income and sustain food and nutritional security. To spur growth in this sector Government of India intends to follow massive Agricultural Production, reduction in wastage of produce, credit support to farmers and a thrust to the food processing sector. Indeed, Agriculture continues to be a way of life in our Country, it provides employment to around 60% of the work force and contributes almost 18% to our Gross Domestic Products (GDP). With more than 6 lakh villages, home to millions of farmers and farm workers, it is very difficult to visualize a prosperous India without Agriculture and Rural Development.

The concept of capacity development is defined in various ways. Broadly, it is defined as a process by which skills, and knowledge are built, utilized, retained and nurtured with a view to provide an entity responding to a development challenge. Two components that are vital in any plausible definition of the concept are human skills (the ability to perform a task) and institutions (effectiveness and efficiency of organizations, systems, processes and procedures).

Capacity : The amount a company or an economy can produce using its current equipment, workers, capital and other resources at full tilt. Judging how close an economy is to operating at full capacity is an important ingredient of monetary policy, for if there is not enough spare capacity to absorb an increase in demand, price are likely to rise instead. Measuring an economy’s output gap – how far current output is above or below what it would be at full capacity – is difficult, if not impossible, which is why even the best-intentioned central bank can struggle to keep down inflation. When there is too much spare capacity, however, the result can be deflation, as firms and employees cut their prices and wage demands to compete for whatever demand there may be.

Capital adequacy ratio : The ratio of a banks’s capital to its total assets, required by regulators to be above a minimum (“adequate”) level so that there is little risk of the bank going bust. How high this minimum level is may vary according to how risky a bank’s activities are.

Capital Asset Pricing Model : A method of valuing assets and calculating the cost of capital (for an alternative, see arbitrage pricing theory). The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) has come to dominate modern finance. The rationale of the CAPM can be simplified as follows. Investors can eliminate some sorts of risk, known as residual risk or alpha, by holding a diversified portfolio of assets (see modern portfolio theory). These alpha risks are specific to an individual asset, for example, the risk that a company’s managers will turn out to be no good. Some risks, such as that of a global recession, cannot be eliminated through diversification. So even a basket of all of the shares in a stock market will still be risky. People must be rewarded for investing in such a risky basket by earning returns on average above those that they can get on safer assets, such as treasury bills . Assuming investors diversify away alpha risks, how an investor values any particular asset should depend crucially on how much the asset’s price is affected by the risk of the market as a whole. The market’s risk contribution is captured by a measure of relative volatility, beta, which indicates how much an asset’s price is expected to change when the overall market changes. Safe investments have a beta close to zero : economists call these assets risk free. Riskier investments, such as a share, should earn a premium over the risk-free rate. How much is calculated by the average premium for all assets of that type, multiplied by the particular asset’s beta. But does the CAPM work ? It all comes down to beta, which some economists have found of dubious use. They think the CAPM may be an elegant theory that is no good in practice. Yet it is probably the best and certainly the most widely used method for calculating the cost of capital.

Cape gooseberry is the native of Peru and Chili (South America), but widely cultivated in Cape of Good Hope and hence called so. It is known by different name in various parts of the world. It is commonly called ‘Poha’ in Hawaii; ‘Golden berry’,’ Pompelmoes’ or ‘Apelliefie’ in South Africa; ‘Lobolobophan’ in the Philippines. In India it is commonly called ‘Rasbhari’, ‘Makoi’, ‘Tiparee’ or ‘Tepari’. Cape goose berry (Physalise peruviana L.) belongs to the family solanaceae. Out of 80 species of genus physalis, only three are well known for their fruit value. These are: (i) P. pubescen L. (ii) P. Peruviana L., and (iii) P. ixocarpa Brot. However these three species, Physalise peruviana L is the most popular due to its pleasant flavour and acid-sweet taste.

Commercial capers are the immature flower buds, which have been pickled in vinegar or preserved in granular salt; they are used raw or cooked as condiment in different recipes. Semi- mature fruits (caper berries) and young shoots with small leaves may also be use as a condiment in salads or as an appetizer before meal. Capers and caper plants, wild and/or cultivated, are used in almost all the area of Capparis subgenus Capparis, extending from West Africa to the Norfolk islands in the Pacific, and most of the species are of alimentary or medicinal interest (Rivera, Inocencio, Obón & Alcaraz, 2003).

Capparis is a term coined by Theophrastus (4th cent. BC) and validated by Dioscorides (1st cent. AD) (Êáððáñéò), although it seems not to have come into wide use until the spread of the Arab world.
 
Caper and its relatives in several European languages can be traced back to Classical Latin Capparis “caper”. Latin Capparis, in turn, was loaned from Greek kapparis [êáððáñéò], whose origin (as that of the plant) is unknown but probably West or Central Asia. Another theory links kapparis to the name of the island Cyprus (Kypros [Êáðñïò]), where capers grow abundantly.

Cost analysis enables organizations to understand cost behavior, improve efficiency, and support strategic decision-making. When integrated with data analytics, cost analysis becomes more precise, data-driven, and adaptable, allowing firms to optimize resource allocation and enhance profitability. The process begins with the collection and classification of cost data. Costs are typically categorized into fixed, variable, and semi-variable components. Fixed costs remain constant regardless of production levels, while variable costs fluctuate with output, and semi-variable costs exhibit characteristics of both. Data analytics tools assist in organizing and cleaning large volumes of financial data from accounting systems, ensuring accuracy and consistency. Proper classification is essential, as it forms the basis

I. FILL UPS

1. Capsicum belongs to _____ family.
2. _____ active ingredient is present in capsicum.
3. Ideal day temperature for flowering is _____