eChapters

Animal welfare organizations are those organizations which are volunteered to help people to protect their animals. It is concerned with the health, safety and psychological wellness of animals. They have a deep understanding of needs of animals and thus help animals in distress. The types of stake holders depend on what type of animals are reared.

Productivity measures, such as rate of growth or reproduction have traditionally been used as indicators of biological functioning. If this is regarded as closely related to animal welfare, then high productivity should be evidence for a high state of welfare. In some cases, selection for production has pushed animals to the point where basic biological functioning and body maintenance is compromised. Therefore, Production measures are always misused.  Productivity of the group is a different measure than productivity of the individual. Such group overall is performing poorly but that productivity from a few outstanding individuals makes average productivity look high. Similarly specific individuals who are performing very poorly may be overlooked if average group performance is high. Although commercial organized dairy farms are very limited, but welfare issues are always there in both small and large farm. Some of the important issues in the organized farms are discussed below.

In India, the cow is a worshipped as symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, altruistic giving and full of earthly life. Cows are traditionally treated as a sacred animal. Dairy products are extensively used in India and are one of the most essential nutritional components of meals.
 
The laws governing cattle slaughter is shown in entry 15 of the State List of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, meaning that State legislatures have exclusive powers to legislate the prevention of slaughter and preservation of cattle. Some States allow the slaughter of cattle with restrictions like a “fit-for-slaughter” certificate which may be issued depending on factors like age and gender of cattle, continued economic viability etc. Others completely ban cattle slaughter, while there is no restriction in a few states. Prohibition of cow slaughter is a Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Article 48 of the Constitution.

3.1 Introduction

The concept of nanoscience was first described in 1959 by physicist Richard P. Feynman in a lecture to the American Physical Society and it was Japanese researcher Norio Taniguchi who coined the term nanotechnology in 1974 to describe precision engineering with tolerances of a micron or less. Eric Drexler in 1986 in his book Engines of Creation, brought nanotechnology into the public domain.

10.1 Introduction

A single-walled carbon nanotube (SW-CNT) is a nano scale tube formed by a cylindrical shell of single atomic layer of carbon atoms. Nanotubes have diameter of a few nm and length up to 100 nm so that they form extremely thin wires. The atomic structure of SWCNT can be formed by wrapping a stripe of single atomic layer of graphite sheet al.,ong a certain direction, and this direction determines the diameter and chirality of the nanotubes. Experimental and theoretical studies have found that these nano-meter sized CNTs have novel electronic properties, which can be metallic or semiconducting, depending on their radius or chiralities (Mintmire 1992, Hamada 1992, Saito et. al., 1992, Rao 1997, Wildoer 1998 and Odom et al., 1998).

Tumours of mammary gland are the second most common tumours of female dog representing approximately 30-50% of all tumours. Chemotherapy is a kind of treatment that uses drugs to attack cancer cells. The importance of chemotherapy has been emphasized and reported that survival could be prolonged after chemotherapy in cancer patients. Clinical trials of the combination of selective COX-2 inhibitors with chemotherapy in patients with a number of cancers have been initiated and preliminary results are encouraging. The introduction of immunohistochemistry and newer techniques like nucleolar organizer region (NOR) staining have improved the objective of diagnosis of cancer. Silver stained nucleolar organizer region (AgNOR) count is considered to be valuable prognostic marker for canine malignant lymphomas and other canine tumour. This study is designed to investigate the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic agent-Methotrexate with or without COX-2 inhibitors-Meloxicam and also to study the potential clinical application of nucleolar organizer regions (NORs) as prognostic indication in canine mammary tumours.

Phosphorus, an essential element, plays a central role in cell metabolism and reproduction. It is a structural component of energy transferring molecules (ATP, ADP and AMP), nucleic acids, coenzymes, phosphoproteins, phospholipids and sugar phosphates. In soils, the phosphorus does not occur as abundantly as nitrogen or potassium. The total phosphorus in an average arable soil is estimated to be about 0.05% (by weight) with an average of approximately 1100 kg P ha-1 (range 200-2000 kg P ha^-1). But only a meager proportion (only ~0.1-1.0%) of it is available for use by plants and microorganisms because phosphorus has poor solubility and gets fixed in soil. Not only the native inorganic phosphates but even the added soluble phosphates of fertilizers and manure readily combine with the cations present in soil solution to form low solubility products. Fixation reactions in soils allow only a small fraction (10-15%) of phosphorus fertilizer to be taken up by the plants in the year of its application.

Biotechnological research started in early seventies with some impressive discoveries in the field of genetics, microbiology, biochemistry, biology and chemical bioengineering. The amalgamation of these sciences particularly integration of their basic principles and applied aspects gave rise to a new field, completely diverse and versatile in nature, what we call today ‘biotechnology’. Originating from research laboratories in universities, biotechnology rapidly captured the attention of industries as the number of its potential products increased. This newly developed frontier science later found broad application in medical science, pharmaceutical industry, agriculture, veterinary sciences and chemical industry for the welfare of mankind. Biotechnology by definition means ‘any technique that uses living organism or a part thereof to make or modify a product, to improve plant or animal or to develop microorganisms for specific purposes’.

Food Science is one of the ancient sciences and the genesis originates to the very beginning of human civilization. The advent of food science was associated with practice and observation by humans before establishment of scientific concepts. The ancient man knew that roasting or smoking of meat improves the edible quality and digestibility. As a consequence, he started practicing the same much before the reasons for the same could be established. Many of the modern preservation concepts had their origin in prehistoric period itself as humans could use techniques such as dehydration, fermentation and pickling to their advantage to improve the sensory attributes of the products and also to enhance their shelf life. Humans during the Pre-Neolithic period about 2,50,000 years before used fire for cooking meat. During the Paleolithic period humans not only roasted food but also developed grinding, pounding and drying. During the Mesolithic era, humans were desperate for food and got involved in extensive hunting and fishing. During the same time domestication of animals took place and animal husbandry became a reality (Stewart and Amerine 1982). The Neolithic period made qualitative changes in the food habits of humans and they changed from a food gathering and hunting society to one of food production (Heizer and Elsasser 1980).

INTRODUCTION

For thousands of years fermentation processes were largely natural phenomena exclusively identified with food preservation throughout the world. Fermentations can play a significant role in meeting the ever growing food requirements of world population providing benefits in the form of innovative food products with improved nutritional value and food quality along side better safety. Fermentations can be used to address a large variety of food related problems and in the development of processes to meet the demand for food. In the wake of estimations made by international organizations that global food demand and population would increase by two-fold by the year 2050, much emphasis has been placed over the ways and means to increase food production and preservation.

L - Ascorbic acid : It is a white crystalline compound with a slightly acidic taste. It is readily soluble in water, alcohol, glycerin, propylene glycol and is insoluble in oils, fats, ether, benzene, chloroform.

Lab coat : A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

1.1 Introduction

‘Cucurbits’ is a term coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey for cultivated species of the family Cucurbitacae. During this current century the term has been used not only for cultivated forms, but also for any species of the family Cucurbitacae. Cucurbits are frost sensitive, predominantly tendril-bearing vines which are found in subtropical regions around the globe. A few numbers of species those are native to or cultivated in temperate climate are prolific seed producing annuals or perennials that live for one season until killed by frost (Robinson and Decker-Walters 2004). Other vernaculars applied to the family Cucurbitacae and several of its members are ‘gourd’, ‘melon’, ‘cucumber’, ‘squash’ and ‘pumpkin’.

Introduction

Horticulture is the science of cultivation, management, postharvest handling, value addition and marketing of fruits, vegetables, ornamental, aromatic and medicinal plants, spices and plantation crops. Looking to its important role in nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation, it has rightly been emerged in form of horticulture industry and as one of the most significant sectors in the world. The production of fruits, vegetables and flowers has acquired much importance in recent times due to their increasing demand. Changing lifestyles of people across the globe, attempts to overcome the stressful lifestyle, inclination towards healthy and balanced eating habits have made people include fruits and vegetables in their daily diet. In the case of flowers, the demand for fresh flowers has steadily increased not only for decoration but also for many other purposes like essential oils, cosmetics, aroma therapy, dry flowers, pot-pourries, natural dyes, medicines, etc. Rising incomes and growing consumer interest in a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables year-round is stimulating international trade in horticulture.

Introduction

Citrus spp. grown in almost all the states of India. Citrus fruit, consisting of mandarin oranges (Citrus reticulata Blanco), sweet orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck) and lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) are grown commercially in tropical, sub-tropical, arid, irrigated and mountainous regions in varying soil and weather condition. The citrus tree on the whole do well in dry climate, with a rainfall between 75 and 125 cm but certain species such as pummel and certain mandarin oranges thrive in heavy rainfall areas of Konkan, Assam and Coorg. It is grown almost all kinds of soil, varying from heavy black soil to shallow open soils. A hard substratum or a sticky impervious layer is very injurious. Soils having a high water table should be avoided. Although the citrus industry in India has faced many challenges, there has been a consistent increase in area and production owing to the awareness for sustained production (Table 1).

Introduction

In horticulture crops, plant materials has been  propagated through vegetative propagation methods for its superiority in growth as well as yield for centuries. Among vegetative propagation methods, micropropagation is most advance technique which made a significance in the horticultural crops to increase quality and yield. It can produce many plants from a single individual.

Mineral Nutrition and Nutritional Deficiency

The normal green plant is autotrophic that means it can synthesise all its organic substances; provided it is supplied with all the inorganic elements and growth under normal condition. The nutrition of green plant is therefore, solely inorganic. It is, in fact, commonly called mineral nutrition. Element absorbed from the soil by the roots are generally known as Plant nutrition or Mineral nutrients.

What is Precision Farming?

It is information and technology based farm management system to identify, analyze and manage variability within fields for optimum profitability, sustainability and protection of the land resource without disturbing the environment. It is basically means adding the right amount of treatment at the right time and right location within a field.

Introduction

India is the second most populous country in the world. The per capita cultivable land resource is shrinking day by day. To meet the food, fibre, fuel, fodder, and other needs of the growing population, the productivity of agricultural land has necessarily to be increased. It requires increased use of agricultural inputs like quality seeds, fertilizers, water, agro-chemicals, etc. in such a manner that do not create any environmental problems.

Plant needs different chemical elements to grow and thrive. The most important chemical elements include (i) carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are basic life building blocks and are available in plenty from air and water (ii) nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium which are the macro nutrients and affect the plant growth significantly (iii) sulfur, calcium, and magnesium as secondary nutrients and (iv) boron, chloride, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc as micronutrients in very small quantities.

Introduction

In India, concern for the protection of intellectual properties took place way back in 1911 through the Indian Design Act.  Since then laws (Indian Patent Act, 1970 and its amendments) were enacted for the protection of various intellectual properties. However, the subject matter of intellectual property did not receive attention in agricultural sector, although scientists and farmers have been developing new plant varieties for almost the entire part of our agricultural history.  The development of new crop varieties on a scientific basis began only in the last 50 years with advanced knowledge of genetics and plant breeding. The entry of genetics into plant breeding resulted in major advances culminating in the development of high yielding hybrids and varieties. Indian agriculture witnessed the arrival of hybrids and high yielding crop varieties in the 1960s, during the Green Revolution.

Introduction

Food processing is an important sector in agriculture, the scope of which has increased manifold that can help to prevent wastage of perishable commodities to a great extent. But, at the same time, the food processing industries generate a large quantity and variety of food products, provide employment to a large number of people and uplift their economic status. The production, processing and preparation of food, all results in generation of huge quantity of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The waste material may be in the form of leaf/ straw, waste during harvesting, food preparation waste, after processing waste, unused material as waste, food processing operation waste, etc. The huge wastage of the food material is due to lack of control on such agri-economy practices. So, the disposal of waste material has become a challenge to the processors, as different agencies are pressurizing for an environment friendly treatment of waste material. The utilization of waste for the production of value added products is very important in the management of food processing waste.

Introduction

Marketing sector via value addition has gained momentum with the rapidly growing flora industry. It is the ultimate way to rescue the flowers from the huge postharvest losses. Value addition in form of floral craft increases the economic value and consumer appeal of floricultural commodities and serving as a linkage between growers and consumers, it directly emphasizes the utility of flowers and a necessity for marketing of flowers. Other forms of value addition in flowers like essential oils, tinting, flower-drying, natural dye, art of floral arrangements are gaining momentum and popularising in our country as well.

Introduction

Flowers are associated with mankind since the dawn of civilization. Flowers are required for all the functions, ceremonies, rituals and celebrations from dawn to the dusk. In India, flowers are mainly grown for cut flowers and loose flowers purpose. By using best postharvest techniques, we can preserve the flowers ranging from few days to few weeks, but drying or dehydration is a technique by which flowers can be preserved for months to years. India has rich biodiversity comprising of wide variety of ornamental trees, shrubs, climbers, etc. which are not being used as fresh or loose flowers but their branched, twigs, flowers, fruits, cones, stems, roots, bark, etc. can be dehydrated to preserve their beauty and for utilization in dry flower industry.

Introduction

Landscaping refers to art and science of proper utilization of garden forms, methods and materials for the overall improvement of the place in such a way that it blends with surrounding and creates aesthetics. It is an approach to enhance the appearance of land by altering its contours, and planting trees, shrubs, climbers and various ornamental plants for aesthetic effects. It is the prerequisite for the urban areas that are highly polluted and densely populated. The urbanites now-a-days are facing many problems relating to the health because of imbalance in the environmental conditions.In today’s world, with the rapid pace of urbanization and the growing concern for climate change led to the increasing trend of bringing nature back into cities. Removal of greenery and replaced them with buildings and paved streets increase the surface radiation and air temperature that result to drier and hotter environment for urban cities compared to the rural areas. In this context, the demand for planned and creative exterior landscaping increases which allows the man to re-create an aesthetic environment with breath taking life. Exterior landscaping is the means of bringing man closer to the nature. It is also referred as outdoor landscaping and has gained wide popularity now-a-days because of the expansion of the urban areas along with increase interest of people towards healthier and cleaner environment.

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 68)

Dairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese or an establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

Curry leaf, Murraya koenigii (Linn.) is one of the most important plants exclusively known for its culinary and medicinal value. Leaves of the plant are widely used for flavouring food in Indian cookery. Leaves are also used in many Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions (Joseph and Peter, 1985). The whole plant including leaves, stems, flower, fruits and roots are used as tonic, stimulant, anti-flatulent, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant (Khan et al., 1997) and anti-carcinogenic (Khanum et al., 2000). The plant is also used in curing digestive disorder, kidney disorder, burns and bruises, improving animal fertility, increasing shelf life of meat products, prevention of premature graying of hair and strengthening gums and teeths (Tara and Sharma, 2010). The plant is most widespread all over India and in some places it is grown wild. 

Dabbling ducks: Duck species that principally feed in shallow water by “tipping up” or dabbling on the surface.
 
Damping off: i) The wilting of young seedlings by certain fungi that cause decay of stem, or roots. The major diseases of germinating seeds are grouped under the single name ‘damping off’. It is caused by a number of separate fungi, mainly species of Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Phytophthora. The disease is expressed either by the failure of seedling to emerge or by the death of the seedling shortly after emergence. Protection from this is to allow the surface of the soil to dry before doing additional watering. Sphagnum moss spread thinly over the soil surface is also effective in reducing damping off. ii) A term used to describe the action of parasitic soil fungi, which cause rotting of seedlings before or soon after germination. This can sometimes be avoided by adding sand to the soil mixture to improve drainage, thus preventing the fungi from multiplying rapidly, or by using fungicides. Eucalypts and pine species are particularly susceptible to damping off.

F : Symbol for a generation; F₁ the first generation of a hybrid; F₂ the second; and so on.

F1 : The first filial generation of a cross between two individuals; parental generation (P₁) from which experiment starts.

F2 : The second filial generation of a cross between two individuals; the offspring resulting from crossing the members of the F₁ among themselves.

Flayer: The fragmentation layer in the forest floor, immediately below the litter layer, composed of fragmented, partially decomposed organic materials that are sufficiently well preserved to permit identification as to origin.

Botanical Name : Cocus nucifera Linn. 
Family : Palmae
Origin : South East Asia and Malaysia. 
Chromosome No :  2n = 32
Type of fruit : Drupe.
Type of Inflorescence : Spadix
Useable Part : Kernel

Chinese big leaf tea (Camellia sinensis var. macrophylla).
Chinese small leaf tea (Camellia sinensis var. bohea)
Shan tea (Camellia sinensis var. Shan)
Indo-China or Cambod tea (Camellia assamica subspecies lasiocalyx)
Indian tea (Camellia sinensis var. assamica)
Family:  Theaceae
Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x = 30
Origin: China (East and South Asia)
Useful Part: Bud and Leaves 

Citrus fruits are originated in the tropical and sub tropical regions of South East Asia, particularly in India and China. North East India is the native place of many citrus species. Citrus fruit has been cultivated in an ever-widening area since ancient times. Although oranges are the major fruit in the citrus fruits accounting for about 70 per cent of citrus output, the group also includes small citrus fruits (such as tangerines, mandarins, clementines and satsumas), lemons, limes and grapefruits. Citrus fruits are consumed as fresh fruit or utilized for preparing processed citrus products. Approximately one third of total citrus production is utilized for processing. India ranks sixth in the production of citrus fruits in the world. In India, it is primarily grown in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka, Uttaranchal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and Gujarat. Citrus fruits have several beneficial health and nutritive properties. They are rich in Vitamin C and folic acid, as well as a good source of fiber. In addition they contain potassium, calcium, folate, thiamine, niacin, vitamin B6, phosphorus, magnesium and copper.

Water is a social requirement. Society now become aware about it’s dependence upon water and hence realized the importance of water in sustaining not only the development but also life. Water: too little, too much, too dirty; is general scenario in the world. But with increase in population water become limiting resource and is becoming scarcer and scarcer day by day. As water become scarcer commodity, the users (stakeholders) become more conscious regarding their share in water and ultimately this situation may lead to water conflicts. Earlier water related problems were generally tackled by hydro-engineers, but now in present climate changed scenario these problems go beyond the hydraulics and hydrology. Now a days politicians, ecologists, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), the media and the stakeholders etc are playing a crucial role in decision making in respect to water management issues. Now water projects are designed in reference to social context (Social context means cultural, economic, political, sociological, legal and other such aspects). When social factors are taken into consideration while tackling the water problems, it could not possible to satisfy all involved. Thus it is required to agree upon a compromise solution acceptable to all. Over recent few decades, information and communication technology (ICT) flourishes with great advances. It provides the ways to search for compromise solutions. In this chapter information, hydroinformatics, evolution of hydroinformatics and role of internet in hydroinformatics are discussed.

Data collection is a tedious and time consuming work, particularly from remote places. So many times the collected data is noisy. But data is the base for future planning and management of water resources. Planning based on noisy data could lead to failure. The modern data collection and subsequent control system i.e. telemetry and SCADA, are introduced in this chapter.

Modeling is heart of hydroinformatics. Simulation modeling became integrated part of modern science to justify feasibility of selected option among various competitive alternatives. Simulation modeling is a tool to evaluate the performance of a system, existing or proposed, under different configurations of interest and over long periods of real time. This chapter describes basic concepts, model simulation, model variables, modeling process, model performance etc. in brief.

Agronomic Research

Statistical tools are used in all branch of agriculture. It is mainly used for efficient planning of experiments and for interpreting experimental data. A good researcher should be aware of statistical techniques, which helps not only summarization of data but also interpretation of data.

10.1. Parameters Used in Statistics

Population

The aggregate or totality of all possible objects possessing the specified characteristic is called a population. Thus, a population may consist of all plants in a plot or field.

Sample

A portion of the population is known as sample. For statistical inferences about a population from a sample, it is essential that the samples are representative of the population.

Introduction

Origin of Water Bodies and Hot Arid Regions (Thar Desert) 

The origin of the hot arid regions (Thar Desert) is a controversial subject. Some consider it to be 4000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity started in this region much earlier. Another theory states that area turned to hot arid zones (desert) relatively recently: perhaps around 2000 - 1500 BC. Around this time the Ghaggar-Hakra ceased to be a major river. It now terminates in the desert but at one time was a water source for the Indus Valley Civilization centre of Mohenjodaro. It has been observed through remote sensing techniques that Late Quaternary climatic changes and neotectonics have played a significant role in modifying the drainage courses in this part and a large number of palaeochannels exist.

Introduction

The term cropping system refers to cropping patterns used on a farm and their interactions with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology over a fixed period. The fruit based cropping system includes different fruit crops as major component on particular field for a fixed period through intercropping or multistory cropping. Intercropping is growing of two or more crops together on same piece of land simultaneously with definite row arrangements to utilize farm resources efficiently. Multistory/Multitier cropping refers to growing together of  crops of different heights at the same time on the same piece of land and thereby using land, water and space in an efficient and economic manner.

Introduction

Today, increasing attention is focused upon the impact farming practices, are having on the environment and there is an increasing emphasis on more sustainable methods of crop production. Systems need to be adopted that are more sensitive to environmental issues, genetic diversity, wildlife and their habitats and in some cases the social structures of rural communities. Furthermore, consumers around the world are more sophisticated and critical than in the past, demanding to know how and what has been used to produce their agriculturally derived products. These issues can be taken up as three main challenges: 1) to improve food security, rural livelihoods and income; 2) to satisfy the increasing and diversified demands for safe food and other products; and, 3) to conserve and protect natural resources. Several scientific advancements have been made in the field of agriculture to address these challenges.

Introduction

According to FAO estimates, about 50% total geographical area in India is under various degraded hazards and about 2.1 million ha of land is getting degraded and deforested annually (Sehgal et al., 1998). Out of that underground water in arid and semi-arid areas is saline or sodic in nature. While spices, medicinal and aromatic plants may be a boon for these areas, which not only withstand under adverse conditions but also could be productive and helps in mitigating these problems. However, other crops are remain less or unproductive in these areas.

Manipulation of matter at nanoscale for creating a myriad of new materials having unique optoelectronic and physiochemical attributes is called nanotechnology (Mohanpuria et al., 2008). The term nanotechnology was first coined by Drexler in 1986, in the book “Engines of creation: the coming era of nanotechnology”. In this book, he writes about the building of machines on the scale of molecules, a few nanometers size (motors, robot arm and even computers). Broadly nanotechnology refers to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme is the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally 1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices within that size range. Nanotechnology is multi-disciplinary in nature often involving chemistry, biology, physics and material science. Nanotechnology is one of the budding and emerging fields of 21^st century. Nanoparticles have received increased attention in the recent past due to their unique distinct unusual physical, chemical and biological properties, which are completely different from their bulk materials and individual molecules (Li et al., 2001).

Abstract

Knowledge of  seed biology is crucial for proper management of  seed sources as well as the handling of seeds. In broadest sense seed technology includes the development of superior crop plant varieties, their evaluation and release, seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed quality  control, seed marketing and distribution and research on various aspects. Vegetative propagation has also become popular for the propagation of some tree species, but seed propagation remains the principal mode of propagation in both the temperate and the tropical region. Forest plantations are a powerful tool in the continuing efforts of foresters to increase productivity per unit area apart from mitigating the climate change and global warming issues. Hence to improve the existing stock in terms of yield, quality, disease resistant and desired traits, seed technology can play a major role in providing quality genetic material.

Abstract

Although  people have harvested seeds and fruit from trees for centuries, only after World War II, the science and theories of forest genetics begin to be seriously applied to and practiced in operational forestry around the world. The genetic improvements, or gains, need to be captured, packaged, and mass produced so that these gains could be deployed in operational forestry systems. This can be accomplished through seed orchards which is a link between tree breeding and silvicultural activities. Seed orchards are by far the most frequently used sexually reproducing forestry production populations in the world. Apart from the genetic improvement, seed orchards are also used for the production of seed that is well adapted to specific environments. Seed orchards can be categorized according to the generation of breeding or the type of plant material used.

Plant quarantine is a government endeavor enforced through legislative measures to regulate the introduction of planting materials, plant products, soil, living organisms, etc., in order to prevent inadvertent introduction of insect-pests, pathogens and weeds harmful for the agriculture of a country/state/region, and if introduced, prevent their establishment and further spread. Various methods of pest disease control are: exclusion, eradication, protection, therapy, resistance, and biological control. Exclusion or ‘keeping out’ is fundamental to the concept of plant quarantine while eradication methods are employed to eliminate a newly established pest/pathogen. Plant quarantine may, therefore, be defined as ‘Rules and regulations promulgated by governments to regulate the introduction of plants, planting materials, plant products, soil living organisms, etc. with a view to prevent inadvertent introduction of exotic pests, weeds and pathogens harmful to the agriculture or the environment of a country/region, and if introduced, to prevent their establishment and further spread’. Plant quarantine is designed as a safeguard against harmful pests/pathogens exotic to a country or a region (Ram Nath, 1991, Khetrapal et al., 2004).

The purpose of seed storage is to preserve planting seed from one season  to the next. Further, the objective of seed storage is to maintain seed quality for the longest duration possible. 

Relative Humidity and Temperature Influence Seed Storability

The two most important factors that influence the storability of seed are relative humidity and temperature. The effects of relative humidity and its subsequent effect on seed moisture and the temperature of the storage environment are highly inter- dependent. Harrington (1963) gave two useful thumb rules for relative humidity and temperature in reference to storage life of the seed. These rules are as follows :

Squashes and pumpkins are vegetable crops of the genus Cucurbita. They are grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of the world. These crops are common elements in home gardening and subsistence agro-ecosystems in most countries and are produced on commercial scale in some countries. The economic botany, genetics and evolutionary history of Cucurbita has been reviewed by Whitaker and Davis (1962) and Whitaker (1974).

In many situations, experiments may not known in advance which contrasts they wish to compare, or they may be interested in more than (m – 1) possible comparisons.  In many exploratory experiments, the comparisons of interest are fixed only after preliminary examinations of the data.
 
13.1 Scheffe’s Method for Comparing All Contrasts

Scheffe (1953) has proposed a method for comparing any all possible contrasts between treatment means.  In the Scheffe method, the type I error is at most a for any of the possible comparisons.

In factorial experiment it may sometime happen that certain factors require bigger plots than other for convenience of operation of the experiment.  For example, in an agricultural experiment involving two factors, say, irrigation and fertilizer, it is organizationally very inconvenient to apply different levels of irrigation to small neighbouring plots.  But there is no such difficulty for the application of different levels of fertilizer. To meet such situations it is desirable to have different sizes of the experimental units in the same experiment.

Introduction

All spatial data stored in a GIS are associated with a map projection, either implicitly (so-called “unprojected” data stored with raw longitude, latitude coordinates) or explicitly (where the data have been transformed into a known map projection). Map projections are a particularly important feature of spatial data because they introduce error and distortion, since a sphere cannot be transformed to a plane without some stretching and twisting of the sphere’s surface.

The typical GIS package supports anywhere from 5 to 50 map projection types, and most projections may be modified or customized by varying their parameters. This flexibility is important for two reasons First, in order to use two or more layers together in a GIS for visualization or analysis, all data must be projected in the same way. Second, certain types of analyses, such as the measurement of area, are only valid when using certain types of projections (and conversely, are completely wrong when using an inappropriate projection).

Introduction

The work on field drains and farm ditches are essential for providing proper irrigation to the crop. Leveling of field is equally important for smooth operation of various field activities including irrigation. Land grading in irrigated agriculture helps in uniform application of water, better water regulation and saving in irrigation time. Land grading helps in conservation of soil and moisture under rainfed conditions. It provides desired surface drainage under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Land leveling helps in the smooth operation of sowing/planting and harvesting equipment.

Abstract

The greatest challenge facing us in the coming years is to produce adequate amounts of basic necessities of food, feed, fibre, fuel and raw materials for the rapidly shrinking per capita agricultural land. One alternative is to make a sustainable use of existing marginal lands. In many regions of the tropics and sub-tropics, the need to use marginal low-input soils with usually inadequate nutrient(s) supply permits only very low or unreliable yields to be achieved. It is frequently not possible  to supply required amounts of mineral fertilizers or chemical pesticides because of the low purchasing power of the marginal farmers. In particular, it is not possible to compensate for the deficient nutrient supply and this constitutes a yield limiting factor. The role of soil microorganisms in sustainable productivity has been well construed. In recent years, root inhabiting (rhizozosphere) bacteria (rhizobacteria) is gaining importance.

Abstract

Soil microorganisms play a major role in the biodissolution of nutrients bound in the soil silicate minerals. Plant nutrients like K, P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, and Mn are bound in them. Silicon is considered as agronomically important as it confers rigidity and strength to crop plants and enhances yield. Biodissolution of these nutrients result in their availability to crops influencing the growth, biomass and yield. The microbial metabolites like organic acids, amino acids, inorganic acids, amines, ammonia, phenolic compounds, extracellular polysaccharides, siderophores, ligands of cations and cation exchange are involved in the biodissolution of K, Zn and Si. Frateuria aurantia, Bacillus mucilaginosus and B. edaphicus and Bacillus sp are recognized as potash mobilizers, silica and zinc solubilizers.