eChapters

A Literature Review is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, articles and research papers to a specific topic providing a base of knowledge on the topic. Literature reviews are designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic to justify your research by exposing gaps in current research. This investigation should provide a description, summary, and critical evaluation of works related to the research problem and should also add to the overall knowledge of the topic as well as demonstrating how your research will fit within a larger field of study. A literature review should offer critical analysis of the current research on a topic and that analysis should direct your research objective. This should not be confused with a book review or an annotated bibliography both research tools but very different in purpose and scope. Key to a good Literature Review is to document your process.

Migration shows the trends of social changes. From the historical viewpoint during the process of industrialisation and economic development, people migrate from farms to industries, from villages to cities, from one city to another and from one country to another. In modern times, technological changes are taking place in Asia, Africa and Latin America due to which these regions are witnessing large-scale migration from rural to urban areas.

Economists are interested in the study of migration because migration affects the supply of skilled and semi-skilled labourers, development of industries and commerce causing changes in the employment structure of the migrated people. Formulation of economic policies has a close relation with the process of migration because migration affects the economic and social development of a country.

Human migration involves the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new geographical location. The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration, within a single country, is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form of human migration globally. Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access to migration networks. Age is also important for both work and non-work migration. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. There are four major forms of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and emigration/immigration.

Persons moving from their home due to forced displacement, such as a natural disaster or civil disturbance, may be described as displaced persons or, if remaining in the home country, internally-displaced persons. A person who seeks refuge in another country can, if the reason for Annual Net Migration Rate 2015–2020. Prediction by UN in 2019.leaving the home country is political, religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application to that country where refuge is sought and is then usually described as an asylum seeker. If this application is successful this person's legal status becomes that of a refugee.

The contribution of dairy sector in the Indian economy has tremendous impact on the country’s GDP. India being the world’s highest milk producing country, dairy industry has a major role in changing the twin problem of the nation that is poverty and unemployment. Dairy sector also involves the under privileged group, especially the dairy farm women. There are many success stories regarding the life changing experiences gained by the farm women, who had taken dairy farming as a means to sustain their livelihood. In the area of gender equality, dairy sector has proved to be a women centric enterprise. Most of the activities pertaining to dairy farming are mostly carried out by the farm women. The dairy farming activities carried out by the farm women are tedious and in major cases their contribution remains unnoticed. They are usually carrying out activities, where most of their energy is drained, resulting in drudgery. Matters related to decision making, their opinion about adopting new technologies, starting an enterprise are not given importance by their family members. This leads to a greater setback in the emergence of success of dairy sector. Therefore, empowerment of farm women in dairy sector is one of the important criteria for the dairy industry to reach a greater height and for overall development of nation.

This chapter presents the analysis, interpretation and discussion of the collected data from the study area in an effort to attain the objective of the study. The data collected were analyzed with appropriate statistical test and presented in a systematic format.

The results of the study are presented under the following subheadings:

4.1 Distribution of respondents according to different socio-economic variables

Basic information of the respondents under the study has been given according to the socio-economic characteristic of the respondents. Variables like age, education, marital status, family size, family type, milk production per day, social status, farming experience, herd size, land holding and annual income are presented in the following table 4.1

Research methodology gives detailed justification about the research methods and procedures carried out in the present study. The present study focuses on the women’s involvement in the dairy farming and their empowerment. Keeping in view the specific objectives of the study and various aspects relating to these objectives the methodological framework has been formulated. The sub topic under the research methodology is as follow:

3.1 Locale of the study

The present study entitled “Retrospective Multidimensional Study on Magnitude of Participation of Women in Dairy Farming in East district of Sikkim” was carried out in the villages of East district of Sikkim. Sikkim is the second smallest states in India, with an area of 7,096 sq. km in size. The meaning of Sikkim is “The valley of rice”. It lies between 27 º33' 00" N and 88 º30' 00" E. The average annual temperature of the state is 18 ºC (64 ºF) and annual rainfall is 2739 mm. The state is situated in the Eastern Himalayas and it shares its border with countries like Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. Mt Kanchendzonga (8585m) which is the third highest peak in the world is situated at Sikkim. According to 2011 census, population of state was 610,577 with male population of 323,070 and female population of 287,507. The literacy rate in the state is 81.40 percent. The density of the state is 86 people per km2 (Census,2011). The cattle population in the state was 264,860 in number (BAHS,2019). The state has four district- East, West, North, and South (Registrar General of India, 1989).

Research being a continuous process for a scientific study, previous study provides basis for the research. The review of literature is necessary for developing conceptual frame work and suitable design for the study. It assists the researcher to keep his work going in right direction. The available literature related to the present study has been reviewed under the following heading:

2.1 Differential role accomplished by women dairy farmers from different social strata

Toppo et al. (2004) examined the participation of women farmers in dairy occupation in Anand district of Gujarat and their result revealed that 18.34 percent of the farm women were mostly engaged in activities related to artificial insemination, majority of the respondent (68.34%) participated in cleaning of the shed, while 25.00 percent of the farm women practised manure preparation and 95.00 percent of the respondent were not involved in preparation of gobar gas mixture.

Badole (2006) reported that majority of the responded had low socio-economic status.

India is one of the most populous country in the world with a population of 1.26 billion (Census,2011). Of which women constitute about 49 percent of the population. Women act as a significant factor in development of the nation. Women from all sphere of life are contributing meaningly towards the prosperity of the nation. Especially, the rural farm women who constitute nearly half of the total rural population. The rural women are the mainstay of Indian agriculture. Their contribution towards agriculture development is worthy of praises. They are capable of accomplishing sustainable development in all the various activities which they have carried out and shown interest. Women are the essential part of society. For a society to develop, women should be given equal importance as the male counterpart. Nurturing of society is possible only if women are nurtured with equivalent opportunities and progress. Indian society is still male dominant, which accounts for low reputation of women. Women are treated as less competent human being. Through passing of time there have been acknowledgement by the Constitution of India on the part of importance of women as a productive humane resource for development of nation. Many measures have been adopted for the gender equality. This paved the way for advancement of empowerment of women.

The chapter focuses on presenting the outcomes and analysis of the research, aiming to offer ample information for reaching accurate conclusions. Within this chapter, tables and models are frequently employed to reinforce the textual content. The discussion section plays a crucial role in interpreting the research results appropriately and establishing connections with other pertinent studies.

The distribution characteristics of the variable Age (x1 ) reveals that the respondents’ ages range from a minimum of 27 to a maximum of 71. The average age is 48.675, suggesting that the majority of respondents fall into the middle-age category. The standard deviation is 11.574, indicating the degree of variability in the ages. Furthermore, the coefficient of variance (CV) is 23.779 percent, indicating a high level of consistency in the distribution pattern of the variable.

The distribution pattern of the variable Family size (x3 ) shows that the family size ranges from a minimum person of 3 to a maximum of 10 persons. The average family size is 10.125 persons. The standard deviation is 1.397. The coefficient of variance (CV) is 23.882 percent which indicates a high level of consistency in the distribution pattern of the variable.

Research methodology is the process of planning and executing a research study, including defining the research questions, selecting appropriate research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The methodology is a blueprint of the research study that guides the researcher through each step of the research process. The research methodology is essential to ensure the validity, reliability, and generalization of the study.

This chapter provides an in-depth explanation of the research methodology used in the research. The purpose of this chapter is providing a clear understanding of the methods, techniques, and concepts used to design, implement, and analyse the research study. By understanding the methodology, readers can evaluate the reliability and validity of the study results.

The chapter is divided into several sub-headings for easy understanding of the methodology used:

• Research locale

• Sampling design

• Pilot study

• Variables and their measurements

The research locale is a crucial aspect of any research study because it can have a significant impact on the data collected, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn from the research. The selection of the research locale should be based on the research questions, objectives, and methodology of the study. The characteristics of the research locale such as its physical, social, cultural, and economic attributes, and the population being studied, can affect the research outcomes.

To accurately understand and interpret the data, used in social science research, it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of the attitude, behaviour and characteristics of the individuals who live in the area being studied. This section of the research critically examines the socio-demographic background of local people in a rural setting. The research setting refers to the context in which the research is conducted, and it plays a crucial role in shaping the interplay of different factors and components that influence the study’s outcomes. The research setting is essential because it provides a contextual framework that helps to inform the researcher’s interpretation of the data. By understanding the characteristics and context of the research area, the researcher can more accurately conceptualize and interpret the data, leading to a more nuanced understanding of the implications and behavioural complexities of the individual and the larger community.

This chapter focuses on key terms and their associated concepts that are crucial for effectively communicating the ideas of the study. It also establishes a theoretical orientation for the empirical investigation and provides guidance for selecting appropriate predictor variables that are relevant to the research.

The scholastic and theoretical exercise referred to in the statement related to the intellectual and academic process involved in conducting research. It involves delving into existing literature, theories, and concepts related to the research topic, as well as formulating new ideas and theories based on the researcher’s understanding and analysis.

One of the key outcomes of this exercise is the development of an operational definition. An operational definition is a clear and concise description of how a specific concept or variable will be measured or observed in the research study. It provides a framework for understanding and interpreting the data collected during the research process.

Furthermore, the pursuit of knowledge is an essential aspect of the research process. Researchers engage in a systematic exploration and investigation of the research topic, seeking to expand the existing knowledge base and contribute new insights to the field. This pursuit of knowledge involves critically analyzing existing theories, synthesizing information, and generating new ideas and theories through the research process. The theory that is developed as a result of this exercise is constructed in alignment with the set of objectives and research designs established at the beginning of the research project. The theory serves as a framework that guides the research process and helps to organize and interpret the data collected. It is important for the theory to be congruent with the research objectives to ensure the research study is focused and relevant to its intended goals.

The Review of literature is a critical summary of published academic research and other sources on a particular topic or research question. It involves identifying, analyzing, and synthesizing relevant research studies, books, articles, and other sources to provide a comprehensive overview of what is known and not known about the topic.

A good review of literature should be well-structured, focused, and provide a balanced and objective analysis of the existing literature. The following are the key elements of a literature review:

1. Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on the topic and highlight the importance of the research question.

2. Search Strategy: The search strategy should outline the databases and search terms used to identify relevant literature.

3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: The inclusion and exclusion criteria should be clearly defined to ensure that only relevant studies are included in the review.

Any perturbation and chaos in ecological setting and its functioning will lead to serious disruptions disruption in both resilience and livelihood. This is exactly what is being confronted by Indian Agriculture upfront. Our soils are brutally extorted to accept the harsh reality that close to 70 per cent of our cultivable land is starving of organic carbon. The ground water depletion in the name of modern agriculture has been another testimony of our ruthlessly prodigal agriculture amounting to serious water crisis. Every five seconds equivalent to a football ground, the golden acres, are vanishing with fertile soil from the chest of the planet. Thus, soil erosion amounting to almost 15 tons per hectare per year in Indian agriculture is not only alarming but also humongous. The losses of biodiversities including floral and faunal counts are adding blistering blistering barrier for our food production system. In the name of green revolution, we turned wrongly illusioned with the ability of so called high yielding varieties and have driven out our valuable landraces to invite gene myopia and gene erosion. This has got a catastrophic consequence. The stagnation of production and productivity in food sector is going to be the bleak indicator of our fragile and frail ecological resilience in the entire production system. But the down to earth reality is that apart from experts, most of our farmers are not aware of this threat, sensitized either. The book has assimilated the data in a delving manner, and real time fact of ground reality that reveals an interesting interpretation of farmers' perception on the rhetoric’s of ecological resilience in India.

Resource Conservation Technologies are essential for addressing environmental challenges, reducing resource depletion, and achieving sustainability goals. By efficiently managing and preserving these resources, we can minimize negative impacts on the environment, reduce costs, and ensure that these resources are available for future generations.

Resource Conservation Technologies (RCT) are practices, methods, and technologies used in various industries, primarily in agriculture and natural resource management, to efficiently and sustainably utilize and preserve valuable resources such as water, soil, energy, and biodiversity. These technologies aim to reduce waste, minimize environmental impact, and enhance the overall productivity and sustainability of resource-dependent activities. Here are some key aspects of resource conservation technologies:

Water Conservation Technologies: RCTs for water conservation focus on efficient water use in agriculture, industrial processes, and domestic settings. Examples include drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and the use of sensors to optimize water application.

Soil conservation is the practice of preventing soil erosion, degradation, and loss while promoting sustainable land use and agriculture. It is crucial for maintaining the health and productivity of soils, which in turn supports agriculture, ecosystems, and human well-being. Here is a detailed explanation of soil conservation:

1. Erosion Control

Contour Farming: Plowing, planting, and harvesting crops along the contour lines of the land, which reduces water runoff and erosion.

Terracing: Creating level platforms with short, horizontal ridges, which reduce water runoff and erosion on steep slopes.

Windbreaks: Planting trees and shrubs in rows to act as wind barriers, reducing wind erosion.

Cover Crops: Planting cover crops in between main crops to protect the soil from erosion, improve soil structure, and fix nitrogen.

Soil : Soil is a complex and vital natural resource that plays a crucial role in supporting plant life and providing the basis for agriculture. There are many different types of soil, each with its unique characteristics and properties.

Types of Soil: Sandy soil has large particles and does not retain water well

Loamy Soil: A balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay, considered ideal for plant growth.

Clay soil has tiny particles and holds water tightly, which can lead to poor drainage.

Silt Soil: Silt soil has intermediate-sized particles and retains water well.

Peat Soil: Peat soil is composed of partially decomposed organic matter and can hold a lot of water.

Chalky or Calcareous Soil: Chalky soil contains high levels of calcium carbonate, which can make it alkaline.

Pumps play a critical role in irrigation systems by providing the necessary force to move water from its source (such as a well, river, or reservoir) to the f ields where crops are grown. The selection and proper operation of irrigation pumps are crucial for the efficiency and success of agricultural practices. Here’s a detailed overview of pumps used in irrigation:

Types of Irrigation Pumps

Centrifugal Pumps

Principle of Operation: Centrifugal pumps are the most common type used in irrigation. They work by converting mechanical energy into kinetic energy in the form of fluid flow. Water enters the pump through the center (eye) of a rotating impeller and is accelerated outward.

A drainage system is a network of structures, channels, pipes, and natural features designed to manage and control the flow of water, primarily rainwater or surface runoff, away from inhabited areas, agricultural land, and infrastructure. The primary purpose of a drainage system is to prevent flooding, erosion, and water logging, thereby safeguarding public health and property, as well as ensuring the efficient use of land.

Surface Water Management: Surface water, which includes rainfall and other forms of precipitation, needs to be managed effectively to prevent damage to properties and the environment. Drainage systems collect this water and direct it away from vulnerable areas.

Catchments: A catchment or watershed is the area of land where rainwater collects and drains into a specific river, lake, or other water body. Understanding catchment areas is crucial in designing drainage systems because it helps determine how much water needs to be managed.