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Technology transfer (TT) is entering a transformative phase shaped by globalization, digitization, and the growing role of start-ups in the innovation ecosystem. Traditional linear models of TT where inventions flowed from academic laboratories to industry through licensing are being replaced by dynamic, multi-directional, and collaborative frameworks. This chapter explores emerging trends that will define TT in the coming decades, including open innovation platforms, digital TT ecosystems powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain, the rise of entrepreneurial start-ups and spin-offs, internationalization of TT through cross-border collaborations, and sector-specific shifts driven by 5G, biotechnology, drones, and green energy. Drawing from global and Indian contexts, the chapter highlights how universities, governments, and industries can leverage these trends to build inclusive, resilient, and sustainable innovation ecosystems.
Three global shifts which will redefine TT
1. Digitization of knowledge: With AI, big data, and blockchain, knowledge and IP can be shared, tracked, and commercialized faster and more transparently.
2. Entrepreneurial ecosystems: Start-ups, incubators, and accelerators are replacing traditional firms as vehicles of commercialization, particularly in deep-tech and frontier technologies.
3. Globalization of innovation: Challenges such as pandemics, climate change, and food security require cross-border TT collaborations, making TT an instrument of both economic and geopolitical significance.

Introduction

The optimum soil pH for plant production is one that is slightly acidic, at this pH soil microorganisms are most active and plant nutrients are readily available. At extremes of high (alkaline) and low (acidic) pH this delicate balance is disturbed and plant nutrients that were in adequate supply can become either deficient or toxic to plant growth. Some essential nutrients such as phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and molybdenum become unavailable if the soil pH becomes too acidic. Acidic conditions will result in a lowering of plant production in farming systems. This will result in reduced profitability and an increased reliance on fertilizers to sustain any form of productive agriculture. Correcting soil pH to a more favorable pH range will increase the availability of essential nutrients.

From the farmer deciding when to sow seeds to the traveler planning their journey, from the pilot navigating the skies to the energy provider managing demand, the state of the atmosphere profoundly influences our daily lives and myriad human activities. The ability to anticipate future atmospheric conditions, a practice we know as weather forecasting, is therefore not merely an academic pursuit but a practical necessity (Fig. 11.1). This chapter will look into the fascinating world of weather forecasting, exploring its historical roots, the fundamental scientific principles that underpin it, and the sophisticated tools and techniques employed by modern meteorologists. We will journey through the process of observing the current state of the atmosphere, the computational power used to model its complex dynamics, and the various ways forecasts are disseminated and interpreted. Understanding the science behind weather forecasting empowers us to appreciate its capabilities and limitations. It allows us to make more informed decisions in the face of an ever-changing atmospheric environment. Join us as we unravel the methods used to predict the weather, from simple observations to cutting-edge numerical models, and gain insight into the continuous advancements shaping the future of this vital scientific discipline.

Seed yield is the foremost important attribute and is the end product of many complex component characters which singly or jointly influence the seed yield. Seed yield does not possess gene per se as such. It is the interaction phenotype of the harmonious understanding, mutual adjustment and manifestation of its component characters. As most of the component characters are polygenic, they are greatly influenced by the environment. So, the selection of genotypes based on yield as such is not likely to be effective. The information on the strength and direction of association of the component characters with seed yield and also among themselves will be very useful in formulating an effective breeding programme for seed yield improvement in a given time. Correlation studies provide about the magnitude and direction of genetic association between the seed yield and its component characters.

Correlation coefficients provide the measure of association between two characters. But, they do not provide the causal basis of such association. Further, correlation between seed yield and its component characters are often misleading due to the inter-relationship that exist among the component characters and the operation of size symmetry and component compensation that thwart the breeding progress. The direct contribution of each component to the seed yield and the indirect effects it has through its association with other components cannot be differentiated from mere correlation studies. This is how, it became necessary for a plant breeder to have information on the direct and indirect effects of these components on the seed yield to identify the key characters for improvement.

Crop protection research has brought out tangible and effective methods to suppress various pests in major agro-ecosystems. Indigenous knowledge in this regard has been tested and validated for its suitability.

Among the 137 Phytophthora isolates collected from bud rot/fruit rot affected coconut gardens in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, four isolates from bud rot affected gardens were identified as P. nicotianae and one as P. capsici. Since, P. nicotianae is found associated with bud rot disease of coconut in three districts representing three states, it is expected that this may emerge as a major pathogen of coconut. Further, placing Trichoderma coir pith cake in the innermost leaf axils of coconut palm in disease endemic areas just before the onset of southwest monsoon (May-end) and thereafter at two months interval was found to be very effective in the management of bud rot disease of coconut.

2.1. Introduction

The word ‘plastic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘plastikos’, which means easily shaped or molded. Plastics is defined as a random set of materials based on synthetic or modified natural polymers which can be formed by thermal and pressure treatment. It comprises of wide range of macromolecular organic compounds obtained either from alteration of natural macromolecules or polymerization of molecules of lower molecular weight.

Introduction

We have now started to feel the impacts of climate change, as a threat to our health, directly as heat stress on our bodies, and indirectly as it damages crops, and causes storms, floods and wildfires (IPCC, 2022). People working in fields or factories, or in the open, suffer the most. Buildings are our first defense as we learn to adapt to these changes. Resilient buildings that provide passive cooling can protect us better from heat waves, buildings designed to withstand storms and f loods can provide better shelter, and net-zero buildings that produce and store their own energy can enable critical operations when the electric grid is down.

8.1. Introduction

Sometimes writing reference list could be so confusing since there are a lot of different rules. Each universities or even each faculty use different rule in writing reference list. The different rule of writing reference list is normal because they refer to different style guide. There are a lot of styles guide available. MLA (Modern Language Association of America) style; the Chicago Manual of Style; the Oxford Guide to Style are some examples of style guide. Difference reference of style guides chosen will result in totally different way of writing reference list. The most widely accepted style guides in social science is the APA (American Psychological Association) style. In some higher education journals (e.g. Journal of Studies in International Education, Higher Education) it is stated clearly that author must submit their paper according to APA style. Referencing in a general sense means to give credit to someone for using his or her own ideas or thoughts in a research activity. Referencing helps in gaining the originality of the ideas and thoughts used in the research activity. Failure to reference is treated as disrespect to the original author or writer and seen as a major misconduct in the area of academic research writing. Generally students made the mistake of not mentioning proper referencing at the end of their research projects, essays or any other piece of work. This may lead to cancellation of the written matter. If we do not reference properly the written matter is treated as if it is copied from somewhere. The research paper or material cannot be submitted for further research or reading purpose. We find a lot of data when we search for something.

Seed quality is a multiple criterion that encompasses several important attributes. A seed scientist may be concerned with each quality characteristic of an individual seed while the seed trader normally considers the quality components of a seed lot. Any individual seed may possess certain measurable seed quality components which include:

4.1. Introduction

Packaging of materials protects, surrounds, and contains food products. It is necessary from processing and manufacturing stage till the final consumption through storage and handling. In 1804, Nicolas Appert, a French confectioner, discovered a method of “conserving all kinds of food substances in containers.” In 1810, the Ministry of the Interior’s Bureau of Arts and Manufactures paid Appert an ex-gratia payment of 12,000 francs on the condition that he publish the details of his process. Appert avoided the use of tinplate in his study. However, in the early nineteenth century (1810), Phillipe de Girard, a French inventor, filed a patent referring to the replacement of glass jars and bottles with tin cases. The official confirmation in the New York Evening Post on July 18, 1822 by Daggett and Kensett is thought to be America’s first offering of preserved provisions in tin cans (Bishop, 1978). Table 1 shows the evolution of metal packaging materials at various stages.

Introduction

India’s textile sector is one of the oldest industries in the Indian economy, dating back several centuries. The industry is highly varied, with hand-spun and hand woven textiles sectors at one end of the spectrum and the capital-intensive sophisticated mill sector at the other. The fundamental strength of the textile industry in India is its strong production base of a wide range of fiber/yarns, from natural fibers like cotton, jute, silk, and wool, to synthetic/man-made fibers like polyester, viscose, nylon, and acrylic.

2.1. Minerals

Primarily, minerals are usually inorganic substances possessing a definite chemical composition and a definite molecular arrangement which is usually expressed in geometric form. The mineral matter is made up of various elements, combined to form compounds. Usually, minerals consist of more than one constituent elements. Quartz contains two elements, silicon and oxygen. Other minerals may contain many elements, such as amphibole consists of several elements that include sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminium, silicon, and oxygen. Some elements exist as such without forming compounds. They contain exceptionally one element. Graphite (C), diamond (C), and Sulphur (S). Minerals are naturally occurring crystalline solid where the atoms are arranged in a regular three-dimensional array. A crystal is a solid, formed by a repeating three-dimensional pattern of atoms, ions, or molecules & possessing fixed distances between the different parts. Minerals that do not grow in these regular or crystalline patterns are called amorphous solids. When we talk about ‘naturally occurring’, we exclude the laboratory-synthesized crystalline solids. Glass and amber are also naturally occurring solid, but they are not crystalline and thus, they are not considered as minerals, rather they are referred as amorphous solids.

1-1. Identify the current state of environmental policies in Indian agriculture and the challenges faced in their effective implementation.

1-2. Evaluate the importance of implementing environmental policies and management systems in Indian agriculture to ensure sustainable development.

1-3. Analyze key international standards, such as ISO 14001 and EMAS, and how they can be applied in the context of Indian agriculture.

1-4. Compare and contrast best practices and case studies of companies and organizations that have successfully implemented environmental policies and management systems in Indian agriculture to draw insights and lessons learnt from them.

7.1. Introduction

In the modem lifestyle, people are extremely busy in their work and lack the time to cook their own foods. They mainly depend upon processed and packaged food for their nutritional intake. So it becomes essential that the packaged products should be safe, hygienic and shelf stable. To preserve the food for long duration, thermal processing is most suitable method. Aseptic packaging is a form of thermal food processing. Aseptic packaging can be defined as the filling of sterile containers with a commercially sterile product under sterile conditions and then sealing the containers so that reinfection is prevented; that is, they are hermetically sealed. 

Abstract

A majority of the plants studied in natural ecosystems are symbiotic with microorganisms that either reside entirely (endophytes) or partially within plants. These microorganisms express different associations ranging from mutualism to parasitism. These symbiotic relationships appear to impart tolerance to various types of abiotic stresses such as heat, drought, salinity, heavy metals, etc. and sometimes may be responsible for the survival of both plant hosts and microbial symbionts in high stress habitats. The amelioration of the abiotic stresses by the endophytes assumes increasing significance in the light of rapidly changing global climate, which is likely to face frequent incidences of extreme weather conditions like high temperature, droughts, etc.

Introduction

The conventional thermal processing technologies are dependent on high temperature to control the growth of pathogenic and spoilage causing microorganisms. However, the exposure to high temperature for prolonged time results in several biological, chemical and physical modifications leading to their sensory, nutritional and textural changes. Currently, consumers are more interested in minimally processed food products with improved safety and shelf life. In order to fulfill the market demand, innovative non-thermal food processing techniques to inactivate the microorganisms have been developed. These techniques retain freshness, nutritional value and sensory characteristics of food items without any significant thermal degradation.

Non-thermal technologies are used in interdisciplinary sciences, and in many other applied areas. The three main pillars related to the use of novel food technologies are food safety, quality and environmental impacts. Besides the food safety and quality dimensions, these non-thermal processing technologies have the possibility to shorten treatment time, lower energy consumption, and lower carbon footprint. Depending on the source of energy transfer, non-thermal technologies have different types of action. It includes inactivation of microorganisms in radical formation (plasma, ultrasound, ozonation, UV light, etc.); mechanical action through hydrodynamic effects, shock waves (ultrasound and plasma), electric and magnetic fields; or extremely high pressures that are causing disruption of the cell organelle.

The novel non-thermal technologies destroy the pathogens at room temperature as well as utilize less energy compared to conventional ones and have the potential of developing new food products having distinctive functionality. For optimizing the product quality, time for processing and also to inactivate the enzymes and bacteria, each of these techniques can be used either alone or in combination. The adverse effect of some technologies on the sensory, texture, and nutritional values of food could be overcome by using hurdle technology. Combination strategies are more efficient for improving the food quality and have the potential to ensure the microbial safety of foods. An overview of the effect of novel process technologies on the quality and safety of food is elaborated in this chapter.

According to the Indian economic survey of 2018, more than 50% of the Indian workforce is employed in the agricultural sector. Agriculture contributed to 17–18% to the country’s GDP. Agriculture’s share in India’s economy is less compared to the industrial and services sectors. The industrial and service sectors have higher growth rates. The significance of the agricultural sector in India’s economic and social growth goes well beyond. Nearly 60% of India’s families depend on rural incomes. In addition to this, the majority of India’s poor population (around 70 %) lives in rural areas. Also, as the population is growing at a fast rate, food security in India depends on producing cereal crops and in increasing the production of fruits, vegetables and milk to sustain the needs of a growing population. To achieve this we need a productive, diversified, competitive, and sustainable agricultural sector. India is the world’s largest producer of pulses, spices and milk. It has the world’s largest cattle herd and the largest area under wheat, rice, and cotton. India is also the second largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, farmed fish, sheep & goat meat, fruit, vegetables and tea.

1. Introduction
Global food insecurity is a prominent concern today, and this concern continues to haunt with exponential population growth, coupled with significant climate changes. The global population has increased at a rapid rate to around 8 billion in number which has led to a corresponding rise in food demand worldwide (UNFPA, 2023). Consequently, ensuring ample crop production has emerged as a primary objective for the entire world. According to World Bank (2023), an important strategy to bring down extreme poverty levels, fostering shared prosperity and providing sustainability for the expected population rise of 9.7 billion is agricultural development by 2050. Nevertheless, optimizing the productivity of a crop is never an easy task. Crop plants continuously face exposure to different abiotic and/or biotic factors, which retard growth and development processes ensuing their reduced productivity and diminished crop quality. Agricultural crops are vulnerable to biotic stresses such as bacteria, nematodes, fungi and herbivores. In addition to biotic factors, these challenges are further exacerbated by abiotic stresses like flooding/waterlogging, drought, temperature variations, soil salinity/alkalinity, heavy metals, nutrient deficiencies and CO2. They have a detrimental impact on crop at different stages of plant growth, ranging from entire plant to tissue and sub-cellular structures. Moreover, the abiotic stressors cause a direct impact on crops by inducing protein denaturation and aggregation, while also increasing the fluidity of membrane lipids (Kumari, 2022). According to Oshunsanya et al. (2019) major abiotic stresses i.e. extreme temperatures, drought, and nutrient deficiency/toxicity, contributes to significant annual crop yield losses ranging from 51-82% worldwide. On the other hand, yield penalties due to waterlogging merely is supposed to increase from 3–11% today to around 10–20% by 2080 (Liu et al., 2023). Daryanto et al. (2016) reviewed the published literatures from 1980-2015 and reported global yield reductions due to drought estimating around 21 % and 40%, respectively in wheat and maize.

Abstract

Drought and salinity are two major abiotic stresses that affect various aspects of human lives of one third world population including human health and agricultural productivity. Abiotic stresses such as salinity, drought, nutrient deficiency or toxicity, and flooding limit crop productivity world-wide. A living organism is considered resistant if it tolerates a given physicochemical stress. The presence of microorganisms within the soil, specially a main group known as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), is a key factor in the adaptation of plants to the different ecosystems. The AMF colonizing within the plant roots can determine the success of plants in salt- and/or drought-affected areas. The symbiosis with AMF has been proposed as one of the mechanisms of salinity and water stress avoidance. Studies have shown greater drought and salinity tolerance in AMF-colonized plants by a number of mechanisms. These mechanisms include enhanced water and nutrient uptake directly by extraradical hyphae, higher leaf stomatal conductance and/or better root system architecture, higher capacity of osmotic adjustment and antioxidant defense systems, better soil structure due to higher glomalin and over expression of genes encoding antioxidant enzymes.

Abstract

Contamination groundwater and soil due to heavy metals (HMs) has aggravated into a threat not only for people inhabiting the polluted areas but also for the vegetation of the region. Relying on the use of obligate symbionts, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in remediation of contaminated sites can be a productive approach. These fungi due to high cation exchange capacity have the ability to adsorb heavy metals (HMs) on fungal tissues; they also possess enzymes responsible for reduction of metals to less toxic forms. In areas with high toxicity of various HMs such as lead, AMF extends its extraradical mycelium (ERM) beyond the depletion zone of plant roots increasing the availability of nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulphur resulting in increased plant growth and yield. Production of phenol and organic acids by the fungus have been reported to increase iron diffusion, that is a co-factor for antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase. AMF sequester HMs in fungal structures and bind them in their chitin cell walls preventing their translocation to aerial plant parts.