eChapters

Kale (Brassica oleracea L. convar. acephala (DC.) Alef.) is a representative of cole group of vegetables and cool-season cooking green somewhat similar to collard and non heading cabbage that has gained recent widespread attention due to its health-promoting, sulfur-containing phytonutrients. Kale is grown for its large foliage which is mainly used as leafy vegetable. This leafy vegetable is helpful in reducing the chances of cancer if taken regularly. Among the vegetable crops, kale is the richest source of carotenoids which is the precursor of vitamin-A. Besides, it also contains good amount of different minerals essential for human diet. There are several varieties of kale, all of which differ in taste, texture and appearance.

Examination of rumen fluid was introduced for clinical diagnosis during the 1950’s. The stomach of ruminant harbor beneficial microbes required for digestion of feed consumed. Stomach maintains an ideal environment (pH 6.8 to 7.2 and temperature 39-40°C) for growth and proliferation of these microfloras. In any of the ruminal disorder this homeostasis get upset resulting in shifting of microbial population (Gram negative to Gram positive) and formation and accumulation of toxic products of abnormal metabolism. This further leads to an array of pathologic process in the body. Hence physical, microbial and biochemical examination of rumen fluid can be considered as an important diagnostic tool for wide variety of disorders.

Abstract

Climate is changing naturally at its own pace, since the beginning of evolution of earth, 4–5 billion years ago, but presently it has gained momentum due to inadvertent anthropogenic disturbances. Global climate is changing and it can have serious implications for our food security through its direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, live stocks, fisheries and pests. In the developing countries including India there has been relatively less attention paid to this topic in an integrated manner. Agriculture is the largest human activity in the world which depends on climatic parameters. We can manipulate soil, water and nutrient management practices but manipulation of climate is beyond our control. It influences crop-pest equilibrium. More than 50% differences in yield are due to climatic variation. Different causes of climate change are: A) Natural cause: Earth orbit, Global warming, Mountains, Sun, and Volcano. B) Anthropogenic cause: Global warming, Deforestation, Change in land use pattern. Climate change is a present reality and a major risk for future generations. Implementing energy conservation methods and utilizing renewable resource such as green power (power from moon, hydrogen fuel, nuclear power, sewage power, geothermal power and power of the mighty sun). Government should also encourage the use of mass transit; provide tax rebates for people who buy low and no pollution vehicles and subsidies to fossil fuels and the nuclear industries.

Abstract

The breeding potential of Ompok bimaculatus is declining day by day due to decrease of rainfall and increase of atmospheric temperature. As a result, the population of Ompok bimaculatus is significantly reducing in the fresh water bodies of Tripura.
 
The results of reproductive biology of O. bimaculatus were based on the fish samples collected from different locations of some rivers and Hurijala wetland of Tripura. Total weight of the sampled fish varied from 22 g to 171.50 g and the females had a greater weight and length than males. Total length of the males varied from 16.50 cm to 29.50 cm, while the females ranged from 17.0 cm to 33.0 cm. Female dominance over male was observed in the species. The ratio of males to females was 1:1.58. Significant correlation exists between fish length and weight in both males (R² = 0.943) and females (R² = 0.827).

Abstract

Rice blast disease (Pyricularia grisea cavara) which is very much weather sensitive, continues to be an enigmatic problem of West Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh, owing to its geographical location and climate. There is an urgent need of a forewarning system which can provide advance information for outbreak of the diseases attack so that protection measures can be implemented before the actual economic damage of the crop occurs. Two most important statistical techniques for disease forecasting viz. regression analysis and artificial neural network were chosen and forecasting models has been developed for the area and analyzed with local weather data to find best fit for the area and also compared with the Support Vector Machine (SVM) based model RB-Pred developed by Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh. The model based on artificial neural network was found to be best with accuracy of 75-80%, with the present data and algorithm. The accuracy can be improved with long archive records and proper implementation and algorithm selection of the hidden layer, of both ANN and SVM based (being special case of ANN) models, for site-specific forecasting.

1. Introduction

With the advent of globalization and subsequent economic liberalization, the focus of Indian agriculture is shifting from “subsistence” to “commercial” mode, where farming is viewed as a “business” rather than “life-support” system of poor farmers. Enabling farmers “decision-making” capacity is a primary driver of success in the market-oriented agriculture. This “commercial focus” has brought tremendous changes in the “nature” and “mode” of extension work. On the other hand, extension work organizations in developing countries like India, are being impacted by sharp decline in public sector funding, rapid technological innovations especially in the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), and the shift to a knowledge-based workforce. These developments created new opportunities for the extension workers to perform the information dissemination, capacity building and technology application more effectively. 

C3 Plant : A plant in which the first product of CO₂ fixation is the 3-carbon compound; phosphoglyceric acid and is comparatively photosynthetically less efficient than C4 plants e.g. wheat, rice, barley etc. 
C4 Plant : A plant in which the first product of CO₂ fixation is the 4-carbon compound oxalo acetic acid (OAA) and is photosynthetically more efficient than C3 plants e.g. sugarcane, maize etc.
Calibration : Calibration with respect to models refers to the adjustments made to model parameters so as to give the most accurate comparison between simulated results and results obtained from field measurements. 
Calm : Absence of appreciable wind : On the Beaufort Scale of wind force calm is accorded the figure 0 and has a wind speed equivalent or less than 1 knot.

Introduction

Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy.

Chemical warfare is different from the use of conventional weapons or nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force. The offensive use of living organisms (such as anthrax) is considered to be biological warfare rather than chemical warfare; the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g., toxins such as botulinum toxin, ricin, or saxitoxin) is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under this Convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered as a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition, known as the General Purpose Criterion)

Definition
 
Radiation poisoning, also called “radiation sickness” or a “creeping dose” is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to radiation. The term is generally used to refer to acute problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a short period, though this also has occurred with long term exposure to low level radiation. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning occur as ionizing radiation interferes with cell division.
 
The clinical name for “radiation sickness” is acute radiation syndrome. A short exposure can result in acute radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome requires a prolonged high level of exposure. A chronic radiation syndrome does exist but is very uncommon;

After the patient has been radiographed, the exposed X-ray film is processed to produce the consistent quality radiographs. Film processing can be manually, or use an automatic film processor.  Manual film processing is a multi-stage process involving five basic steps in processing X-ray film: 
    i)    Developing 
    ii)    Rinsing 
    iii)    Fixing
    iv)    Washing
    v)    Drying. 

Ensiling is the term given for all physical and chemical changes that take place when forage with sufficient moisture content (60-65%) is stored in the absence of air for silage preservation. Silage fermentation is an exceptionally complex process involving biochemical interactions among the forage, microbial populations and the ensiling environment. Successful silage production depends upon the promotion of the fermentation brought by beneficial bacteria. The process is based on spontaneous lactic acid fermentation under anaerobic conditions. The lactic acid bacteria ferment the water-soluble carbohydrates in the crop to lactic acid, and to a lesser extent to acetic acid. Due to the production of these acids, the pH of the ensiled material decreases and spoilage micro-organisms are inhibited. The ideal characteristics of material for silage preservation are: DM content above 20% and an adequate level of fermentable substrate (8-10 percent of DM) in the form of water soluble carbohydrate. The ensiling material should also ideally have a physical form that allows easy compaction in the silo. Materials such as maize stover, sorghum stover and grass can be ensiled successfully, while crop residues such as rice and wheat straw, with low water soluble content, do not fulfill these requirements, and therefore pre-treatments, such as fine chopping or use of additives, or both, may be necessary.

Successful preservation of high-moisture forage and other crops depends upon the controlling the activities of microbes, particularly bacteria. Ensiling generally controls microbial activity by a combination of an anaerobic environment and a natural fermentation of sugars by lactic acid bacteria on the crop. The silage microflora plays a key role in the successful outcome of the conservation process. Therefore, it is important to understand both the microorganisms that are present on the crop at ensiling and how ensiling preserves the crop, inhibiting detrimental microorganisms. The crop at ensiling contains both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms and a range of both bacteria and fungi that affect silage quality.

Quality of silage is determined by nutrients content and intake potential of the silage. High quality silage is a stable feed, made from high quality pasture, which is preserved in the absence of oxygen by a high quality fermentation, to minimize any loss of feeding value. It is not possible to produce high quality silage from low quality pasture, no matter how good the fermentation is. The silage quality is generally used to indicate the success of fermentation and not to evaluate the feeding value of the silage. However, the fermentation quality and nutritional value of the silage are usually highly correlated because a poor fermentation can result in great loss of the digestible nutrients (Sutoh et al., 1970; Uchida and Sutoh, 1973). Therefore, both the quality of the ensiled pasture and the quality of the fermentation must be considered.

Silage fermentation is a dynamic process involving interactions among the forage, microbial populations and the ensiling environment. A good fermentation process is not only dependent on the type and quality of the forage crop, but also on the harvesting and ensiling technique. There are various factors that influence the fermentation process and ultimately the nutrient composition and quality of ensiled feed. These are as follows:

1. Plant Factors

Forage characteristics at the time of ensiling are the predominant factor which determines the final quality of silage. Factors such as type of forage to be ensiled, maturity, DM content and WSC content of that forage, all influence the ease of ensiling and ultimately the quality of silage that is produced.

Feeding silage is also an important part of the process. Silage can be fed to all kinds of animals. Silage is suitable for feeding 6-7 weeks after ensiling. Purposes of silage feeding are drought feeding, production increases, an aid to pasture or crop management, utilization of excess growth, balancing nutrients in the diet, and the storage of wet feed products. Silage is most likely to be profitable when used to increase productivity or balance nutrient content of the diet.
 
Feeding value of silage is defined as the product of the nutritive value and potential voluntary intake of the forage (Wheeler and Corbett, 1989).

Storage of hay at higher moisture contents may lead to some heating due to the activity of aerobic micro-organisms and possibly some plant respiration. The warm, moist conditions in hay will provide the ideal environment for growth of spoilage bacteria, e.g. Bacilli and yeasts, moulds and fungi. These organisms utilize the energy and protein of the hay and can lead to a substantial increase in their respective populations. Their action leads to the following reaction:- 

Hay (plant sugars) + oxygen ® Carbon dioxide + water + heat
 
The resultant heating causes a reaction between the carbohydrates and proteins rendering both less digestible as temperatures continue to increase. The best opportunity to reduce hay-harvesting losses is by shortening curing time. A combination of mechanical conditioning, chemical conditioning and high-moisture baling help accomplish this goal (Collins, 1988; Mahanna, 1994).

Surgical Plan
i. Pre-operative Course of Action 
    a.    Client communication.
    b.    Clinical laboratory evaluation, radiograph, treatment for fluid or blood volume deficits. 

ii. Intra-operative Plan of Action 
    a.    Surgical approach 
    b.    Material and equipment needed 
    c.    Technical and support personnel

A hernia is the protrusion of an organ through a defect in the wall of the abdominal cavity in which it lies.

Classification
1. On the Basis of Anatomical Site
    Abdominal (umbilical and ventral)
    Diaphragmatic

Historical Aspect
    Curare was the first known muscle relaxant which was used by South American Indians to immobilize wild animals. Hence the term curariform has been applied to the action of this group of drugs. 
    In year 1958, a plant alkaloid alcuronium was introduced but there were difficulties in reversing the action of this drug.
    Succinylcholine was first used in 1906. However, its paralyzing property was discovered in year 1949.
    Pancuronium was introduced in 1964.
 

Abstract

The data for the present investigation were obtained from the performance records of 1081 crossbred cattle progeny of 65 sires maintained at Instructional Dairy Farm Nagla of G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology Pantnagar, distributed over a period of 40 years from 1966-2005. A total of 65 sires were evaluated on the basis of single and multi traits of their progeny. For single trait sire evaluation, FLMY was considered as principal trait under univariate models viz- simple daughter’s average () method, least squares method (LSM), DFREML-I method and BLUP-I method. However, for evaluation of sires by multi traits FLMY+AFC, FLMY+FLP and FLMY+AFC+FLP, the multivariate models viz. DFREML-II, DFREML-III, DFREML-IV, BLUP-II, BLUP-III and BLUP-IV method were used. The lowest average breeding value (2616.25) for the trait was obtained by () method and the highest average breeding value (2660.42 kg) was obtained by the rest nine methods. The accuracy, efficiency and stability of different sire indices were compared to judge their effectiveness. The evaluation method that gave the lowest error variance was considered to be most efficient.

Dairy buffalo production has been a tradition in parts of the world like the Caucasian countries. Asia and Egypt, where fresh buffalo milk, dahi (cultured sour milk), ghee (butter oil) and yoghurt are popular. In Italy the dairy buffalo industry is flourishing thanks to the popularity of buffalo mozzarella cheese. Because of the market for Mozzarella, buffalo farming is a profitable enterprise and is carried out in an organized manner with modern equipment. In South American countries like Brazil and Argentina, buffalo reared for both milk and meat. In recent years buffalo milk and milk products, especially Mozzarella cheese, have become immensely popular and dairy buffalo production has founds its way into non traditional areas with the number of buffalo farms mushrooming.

Abstract

Estimates of genetic parameters are needed for the prediction of breeding values and planning of selection strategies for desired genetic advancement. Even animal breeders feel lost when confronted with the huge set of different methods. This paper describes an overview of latest methods for the estimation of genetic parameters in a simplest possible way avoiding complex mathematical expressions.

Nursery is a place like a crèche, where young tender seedlings are nurtured before planting in the field. The healthy, sturdy, vigorous and diseas free seedlings can establish well in competitive environment. Generally, vegetables like tomato, brinjal, chilli, pepper, cauliflower, cabbage, knol khol, lettuce, onion, Brussel’s sprouts are raised through seedlings. But skyrocketing cost of hybrid seeds and high premium of early harvest warrant the attention of cucurbits growers to produce the nursery, Nursery raising has certain advantages over the direct seeding like:

Though a large number of insect pests are reported to attack mango, which cause considerable damage to mango crops in India. More than 492 species of insects, 17 species of mites and 26 species of nematodes have been reported to be infesting mango trees, about 45 per cent of which have been reported from India. Almost a dozen of them have been found damaging the crop to a considerable extent causing severe losses and, therefore, may be termed as major pests of mango. These are hopper, mealy bug, inflorescence midge, fruitfly, scale insect, shoot borer, leaf webber and stone weevil. Of these, insects infesting the crop during flowering and fruiting periods cause more severe damage. The insects other than those indicated above are considered as less injurious to mango crop and are placed in the category of minor pests. A brief description of the biology and control of major pests of mango is given below. Mango suffers from several diseases at all stages of its life. All the parts of the plant, namely, trunk, branch, twig, leaf, petiole, flower and fruit are attacked by a number of pathogens including fungi, bacteria and algae. They cause several kinds of rot, die back, anthracnose, scab, necrosis, blotch, spots, mildew, etc. Some of these diseases like powdery mildew are of great economic importance as they cause heavy losses in mango production. Major pests and diseases of mango and their control measures are discussed below.

The presence of moisture in atmosphere is termed as humidity and plays an important role in formation of weather system and plant as well as insect-pest growth and development. An abundance of moisture results in a rich natural flora and makes possible a wide choice of crops. Deficiency of moisture, on the other hand, permits only narrow range of crops. Humidity also affects the water requirement and the rate of transpiration. Reduction in transpiration reduces the translocation of food material and uptake of nutrients. High humidity with high temperature favours the outbreak of pest and disease. Moisture stress condition reduces the cell size and shape and ultimately plant growth and yield is reduced. High soil moisture and humidity condition cause failure in establishing stand of legumes and pulses. Excess of soil moisture in earlier growing season may result in more vegetative growth and delayed flowering.

The history of plant breeding is divided into 4 periods- knowledge of plant breeding before 1900, application of genetic principles (1900-1940), plant breeding research after 1940 and the recent developments in plant breeding. Emphasis is given on the land marks in genetic improvement of vegetable crops.

The major land marks  in genetics and breeding of crop plants are listed below.

1. Herbicide –herbicide interaction

Herbicides cause some effects as follow:

(i) Synergistic: Synergism is defined as the cooperative action of different chemicals in a mixture such that the total effect is greater than the sum of the independent effects (Green et al., 1997). In relation to herbicides, the total  induced by an herbicide mixture is greater than the sum of the responses by each herbicide alone (Anderson, 1996). Synergistic  is often used to describe the effect of drugs working together — where one drug increases the other’s effectiveness. Synergy is the interaction of multiple elements in a system to produce an effect different from or greater than the sum of their individual effects.

Abstract

The study was conducted in Tumkur district which is considered as a very progressive district with 7230 SHG’s. It has 11 taluks out of which Tumkur taluk was selected for the study. Within this taluk, a cluster of 7 SHG’s were considered for the study. The results show that more than three fourths of Stree Shakthi group members came to know about the Stree Shakthi Programme through anganawadi workers (92.5%) followed by news papers (7.5%). It is also interesting to note that 87.5% reported that to a great extent their attitude changed about bringing up their children without discrimination, sending their daughter to school compulsorily and growing vegetables in their backyard. Further results reveal that SSP is changing the attitude of rural setting. Family problems, cast and religion, lack of encouragement in the family, political problem were the major constraints in SHG as perceived by the members.  Still SSG has made some qualitative changes in the lives of the rural people.

Abstract

Farm women are the backbone of Indian agriculture. They contribute more to food production and family income in terms of skilled and entrepreneurship than is generally known or accepted. Thus the governmental efforts to reach the development goals may be jeopardised by not taking into account the women’s contribution to agriculture. In this age of scientific development farm women have not participated to the extent they are expected in agriculture because they are not recognized as tangible contributors to agricultural development. They always remained as invisible workers in spite of their pivotal role and remain silently behind all the efforts of men. Very few scientific and empirical investigations have been made to examine the actual participation of farm women in crop production and dairy production activities. Taking the above situation into consideration, four minuscule studies were conducted in Bangalore, Mysore, Mandya and Chamarajanagar districts of Karnataka to know the level, extent and nature of participation of women in home, farm and livestock production activities.

The progress and prosperity of a nation depends to a large extent on well trained and disciplined youth. The youth of today are the adults of tomorrow and farm families of the future. More than half of the India’s population is below 35 years of age. Majority of these young people live in village where they do not have adequate opportunities for vocational training and formal schooling. This vast youth population has limitless energy and enthusiasm. The proper chanalization of this energy for constructive work can make India one of the most developed and prosperous nations of the world. Youth are the future of India, it is therefore, essential to harness them in an organized manner to build up the backbone of the country. If they are given good training they grow up as individuals-physically, mentally and morally capable of playing their full part as adult members of our welfare society.

Youth, defined as those who belong to the age group of 13-35 in the National Youth policy 2003 of India, is considered to be the most vital segment of the population. Across the globe youth is being treated as an asset for a country’s development and enormous investment is being made to develop the human capital. The challenge of nations like India with ‘Youth Bulge’ in their population is to channelize the energy into positive and creative development process. Youth in the 21st Century aspires for a just global order,  They are looking for democratic process in all spheres of life, whether it is education, employment or decision making.  The issues and concerns of youth are fast changing in tune with the technological innovations.

The major impact of the two important components of the Karnataka Watershed Development Programme (KWDP) viz farming system intensification and watershed treatment will be on land-based enterprises and land owners, although to a certain extent landless families would also benefit from the increased labour demand through intensification of agriculture. To ensure growth with equity among all the stakeholders in the project, it is imperative to have practical, market-driven, complementary and supplementary income generating activities for weaker sections of the community, including SCs, STs, women, landless persons, families below the poverty line and other vulnerable groups in project districts.  Hence, it is imperative to raise the status of landless families above the poverty line.  The SHGs are to be encouraged to take up viable enterprise and to enhance their fund mobilization by regular savings, investment in viable income generating activities and in time repayment of the loan taken.  The IGAs are meant mostly for the landless and asset less stakeholders in the watersheds.

Switching over to alternate production systems, or adoption of modern production practices are far beyond the scope of Scheduled Caste and other vulnerable farmers due to their poor resource base and economic conditions

The agricultural production systems are largely dependent on rainfall, vagaries of climate, and biophysical environment including market dynamics. Continuously, threatened livelihood systems lead to low income generation, insecurity in food production, and compels to live in below poverty line (BPL).
 
The basic approach of agricultural extension focuses on reach to small, marginal/rural women/rural youth. It also includes strengthening and up-scaling of on-going extension reforms, provision of quality manpower and promotion of commodity based farmers organizations and thrust on market-led extension.

The National Development Council had visualised an overall growth rate of 10 per cent for the XI Five-Year Plan for which agriculture sector has to contribute a growth rate of about 4.1 per cent as against 1.7 per cent. Hence, there is a need for vibrant, dynamic and innovative approaches to be adopted for agricultural extension in order to achieve the targeted growth rate.

Vitamins are essential organic nutrients required by an organism in small quantities. They are essential since they cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. The term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients like dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids which are needed in larger quantities than vitamins. The term vitamin is derived from “vitamine,” coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Funk. The name is from vital and amine, meaning amine of life. Thirteen vitamins are generally recognized presently. Vitamins are used in small quantities by an organism to keep it in a healthy condition.

Vitamins are given letters of alphabet (A,B, C, D, etc.) in the order in which they have been discovered. The letters do not bear any relation to their structures or their importance. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity and not by their structure. Thus, each “vitamin” refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Vitamin A includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.

The word cell was coined by Robert Hooke with the help of compound microscope. Cell is the basic unit of life. A plant cell has three distinct components a). Cell wall b). Protoplasm and c). Vacuole. Cell wall  and  vacuole are considered as non-living substances. The protoplasm which is living is  composed of 1. Cytoplasm and 2. Nucleus. The cytoplasm contains several organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplast, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes, plastids etc.

Abstract

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring chemicals produced by fungi growing on grain, feed or food. The fungi that produce mycotoxins in grains commonly include Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species. The toxins can accumulate in maturing corns, cereals, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts and other food and feed crops in the field and in grain during transportation. The toxins may occur in storage under conditions favorable for the growth of the toxin producing fungi. Diseases in animals and human beings resulting from the consumption of mycotoxins are called Mycotoxicoses. These fungal metabolites are detrimental to the health of both animals and human. Toxicity ranges from acute death to chronic diseases, cancer and reproductive malfunction. Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed grains is a serious economic problem for grain producers and processors because grain contamination impacts market 

Abstract

‘Made in India’ is no more a sign of poor quality. However, in the field of food grain exports, India is still lacking the required determination. The Indian food grains get rejected in the International market because of its out-dated post harvest technology (PHT). The Food Corporation of India (FCI) is the nodal national agency for the procurement, storage, processing and transporting of food grains, and their further distribution through the Public Distribution System (PDS). The government fixes the procurement price as well as the distribution price of the food grains, and the FCI has to accept it. The government compensates the resulting loss through subsidy. The government, through FCI, must encourage cultivation and marketing of premium quality food grains, by offering suitable incentives to farmers. The cost of marketing, storage and transporting of food grains can be considerably reduced with simultaneous improvement in quality of the end product, if the prevailing bag handling is replaced by bulk handling, storage, and transportation. However this needs closer coordination between various departments of the Ministry of Food and Ministry of Railways. The President of India revealed his vision to make India a developed country by the year 2020. To achieve this, the current post harvest losses to the tune of 10 percent must be reduced to 2 percent. This is possible if the government takes bold political decision supported by equally firm and time-bound necessary

Normal Physiology
Rectal Temperature    :    38.6 to 40.1ºC (AV: 39.5ºC)

Fish production of the country has improved considerably in the post-independent India with the total production going up from 7.52 lakh tons in 1950-51 to 90.4 lakh tons in 2010-11, with an average growth rate of 4.35% per year after 1990. The real jump has come from inland aquaculture sector. Production from inland waters which used to be less than 30% of the total till sixtees, gradually rose at a fast pace and crossed the 50% mark by the end of 20th century. The present contribution of inland sector to the country’s total fish production of 52.09 lakh tons is 58% recording an average annual growth rate of 8.4% per year after 2011.

This increase in contribution from inland sector is because of the quantum jump in production from freshwater aquaculture, made possible mainly due to development of technologies of hypophysation of Indian Major carps and composite fish culture during late fiftees and sixties respectively. Development of these two technologies, along with their wide extension through Fish Farmer’s Development Agency, initiated by Govt. of India in latter part of 1970s, have in fact revolutionised freshwater aquaculture scenario of the country. It is presently contributing to over 70% of the total fish production  from inland resources of this country.

Fish culture is an age old tradition modified and improved by several scientific inventions. Farmers can easily take up fish culture in village ponds, tanks or any water body and can improve their financial position substantially. Pond aquaculture is the most common method of fish culture throughout the world. For successful aquaculture of fish, molluscs, crustacean and even aquatic plants, the water and soil in which fish are grown should have favourable conditions for their growth which, in turn, is intimately linked with several physical, chemical, biological characteristics of water and management practices adopted. Physical and chemical characters of the soil and water will affect the primary and secondary production of water bodies.

The survival and production of fish in a pond is dependent on the primary and secondary production. Primary production depends on the water quality parameters. Phytoplankton make carbohydrate using sunlight and releases oxygen. This is the major source of energy and oxygen in the ecosystem. Zooplankton which feed on the phytoplankton form major source of food for the fishes.

A concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds obtained from aromatic plants is referred to as essential oil. It is so-called to indicate that the oil is the fragrant essence of the plant from which it is extracted generally through various distillation methods. The economics working behind essential oils has three components. First, the cultivation of herbs and plants used to extract essential oils; second, the actual process of extraction of the oils; and, third, the marketing and actual sale of these oils. But the major emphasis is often given to the agrotechnology, since the crop yield and yield of the essential oil depends on the quality of cultivation. The cost of cultivation of herbs in the developing countries per hectare is estimated at US $ 600 to 1100. This cost mainly comprises labour cost and as such this industry is uniquely suitable only for developing nations. The revenue from essential oils after the extraction per hectare is estimated to be around US $ 2500 to US $ 6500. According to industry sources, more than 3,500 essential oils are known. Out of these, some 400 are used for commercial purposes on a regular basis. These are obtained mostly from agricultural plants, some from wild plants that may be seasonal or perennial. Oil can be extracted from any part of plants—from leaves, flowers, fruits, roots etc. Whatever the source of essential oils, they have complex compositions, containing alcohol, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, esters, ethers and turpenes in varying proportions.

INTRODUCTION

The first significant economic contribution of host plant resistance in agriculture was made in 1890 when European grape vines were successfully grafted on resistant root stock to save the French Wine industry from viteus vilifaliac (Fitch). Studies from the past century have led to the development of resistant varieties in about 15 crops to about 50 key insect pests. During the last 20 years alone, more than 500 insect resistant cultivars of rice, maize, cotton, sorghum, alfalfa and wheat have been developed and released world wide (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2001). The insect resistant varieties are grown on millions of ha. annually and help the farmers to save billions of dollars in insecticide costs (Dhaliwal and Arora, 2001). The role of Host Plant Resistance in Integrated Pest Management is discussed below.

Introduction

Advent of agriculture in India dates back to around 2000 BC, the period of Indus Valley Civilization. South and East Asia also witnessed the start of agriculture around the same time. The crops were grown only during the monsoons. Winters served as a closed period for crops as well as for the pests. Even at that time a number of insect pests were known to cause serious damage to different crops. Agriculture has been revolutionized during the few decades since World War II (Kupatt et al., 2005). Introduction of high yielding varieties and associated technology resulted in tremendous increase in the production from the same piece of land. The results of these changes include a dramatic reduction in time and resources needed to provide an unprecedented quantity of quality food and fiber. The initial introduction of plant protection agents as wonder material did not lasted long, as very soon their ill effects on human health and environment were witnessed.

INTRODUCTION
 
In India tremendous progress has been made in agriculture. In absence of check on population growth, it may cross 1.5 billions by 2030. As a consequence per capita availability of land 0.13 ha will further reduce to 0.1 hectare in 2020 A.D. The demand of growing population for food and fibre require country to produce higher yields from presently cultivated land. Currently an average of 2790 calories of food available each day for every human on the planet, (23 per cent more than in 1961 and enough to feed every one). The production targets and required yield to feed the ever increasing current population with present available resources will require the growth rate of 2.35 and 2.2 per cent in rice and wheat, respectively and as high as 4.45 and 3.38 per cent for pulses and oil seeds, respectively. This requires national average yield to be increased by 30-50 per cent, which is not a cakewalk. India will require producing additional 5-6 million tones annually to keep pace with ever-increasing national food and nutritional requirements. Recurrent famines, starvation death and lack of resources led to green revolution, which as of now has turned our begging bowl to agriculturally advanced cereal exporting country.

INTRODUCTION

While the world has been changing during the last few years both politically and economically in unexpected and remarkable way, food security remains an unfulfilled dream of billions of people. With the world population crossing six billion marks, the demand for food grains is increasing at an alarming rate. Increasing population, on the other hand, has led to decrease in cropping area. In order to meet the global food demand we have to increase the productivity. Insects have always been a major cause of yield-loss in agriculture. They account for 20-30% of crop-loss. Several approaches e.g. physical, chemical and biological have been used with varying degree of success to reduce such losses.
 
The insect pest management is one of the most important yield destabilizing factors in almost all the crops. While for some insects, genetic sources of resistance are available in the respective plant germplasm, for many others germplasm is almost devoid of effective resistance genes. It is because of this factor that conventional breeding strategies have not been successful in breeding insect pest’s resistant varieties. The only means available at present for managing the insect is extensive application of insecticides and pesticides. Excessive usage of the pesticides causes, on one hand, environmental pollution and on the other, it forces the insects to develop resistance against these chemicals. Application of the pesticides also imposes additional economic burden on the farmers.

INTRODUCTION

“An insect is like an old-fashion soldier: it does what it is ordered to do, and when it has no orders it does nothing” (a citation from Wright, 1963). The orders are very often given as chemical signals that induce certain behaviour or change the course of development in the insect. Chemical communication appears to be the primary mode of information transfer in insects. These chemicals are able to modify the behaviour of a perceiving organism at sub-micro/nanogram levels and are known as semiochemicals. The term is derived from the Greek Word Simeone, meaning a mark of a signal. These behaviour modifying chemicals are divided into two broad categories.

Physical Chemistry of Foods

    1.    Thermodynamics is primarily concerned with energy and entropy. Energy, also called internal energy (U), comprises heat and work; it is measured in joules (J).

    2.    Energy may be recalled that work generally equals force times distance (in N_·m = J) and that force equals mass times acceleration (in kg ·m· s^-2 = N).

    3.    According to the first law of thermodynamics, the quantity of energy, i.e., heat (q) work (p) potential energy, is always preserved.

    4.    Entropy (S)  is a measure of disorder; it is given by   
        S = K_B ln Ω
        Where K_B is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 ×10^-23 J × K^-1) and W is the number of  ways in which the system can be arranged, also called the number of degrees of freedom.

    5.    Colligative solution properties : The lowering of the chemical potential of a solvent by the presence of a solute causes changes in a number of physical properties: vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing point, osmotic pressure, etc. (the magnitudes of these changes all are proportional to the mole fraction of solute).

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are the key cytokines produced by Th1 cells ?
Ans.     IL-2 and IFN-g. 

Q.2.     What is class III MHC genes ?
Ans.    The class III MHC genes encode various secreted protein that have immune functions including component of C’ and molecules involved in inflammation.

B. Write true of false about the followings.

Q.1.     Macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells can acts as antigen presenting cells.
Ans.    True.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.    Which protein is coded by gag gene in HIV ?
Ans.     It codes for protein that form the core (p24 and p17).

Q.2.     Which protein is coded by pol gene in HIV ?
Ans.    It codes for a protein that cleaved into 4 enzymes. 

Q.3.     Which protein is coded by env gene in HIV ?
Ans.    It codes for protein that is cleaved into two proteins (gp120 and gp41).

Bioinformatics is the study of analysis of biological data using computer programming, mathematics and statistics. Bioinformatics is the application of computer science and information technology to the field of biological sciences. Bioinformatics involves databases and information systems, web technologies, artificial intelligence and soft computing, information and computation theory, software engineering and statistics. The one of the most important achievement of bioinformatics is the human genome project which was mapped in 2001. Most of the work in this field is based on the research. Scientists make databases and develop different tools to analyze different gene expressions. Within last few decades, a number of research  in the field of molecular biology, along with advances in genomic technologies, have generated a huge number of biological information  Similar is the case in the field of animal production where many advances have occurred. The day to day advances in bioinformatics and computational science have led development in the field of animal as well as veterinary science. Bioinformatics generates new knowledge in the field of Animal Sciences, and improving & discovering new models of computation for the advanced livestock production.

Celite Column Chromatography
(Method of Wiseman and Irvin, 1957)
Principle

Celite columns with an internal indicator have been developed for the quantitative separation of silage and rumen volatile fatty acids ranging from butyric to succinic. The aqueous phase employs minimal amounts of sulphuric acid to prevent retention of organic acids, sugar is added to the phase to increase elution resistance. Aqueous samples, 2 ml or less are added directly to a dry column cap. Eluting solvents are mixtures of acetone and petroleum ether. Single zone collections make possible a reduced number of titrations with increased accuracy. The column permits fairly wide separations of lactic acids, often difficult on silicic acid columns.

The method employs celite with alphamine red R as an internal indicator. A distinctive feature is the use of concentrated sugar solution as the stationary phase to resist leaching action of solvents.