eChapters

Advantages and limitations of artificial insemination

Artificial insemination is the first great biotechnology applied to improve reproduction and genetics of domestic animals. Artificial insemination includes the collection of semen from the male, semen assessment for quantity and quality, dilution with extender, preservation and then insemination. Artificial insemination (A.I.) is a breeding technique where semen with living sperm is deposited into the reproductive tract of a female who is in estrus by use of instruments. Artificial insemination is the most important single technique widely used worldwide to upgrade the genetic makeup of the farm animals. Artificial insemination can be performed in most of the domestic animals like cow, buffalo, mare, sow, bitch, queen cat, lambs, does etc. Due to invention of frozen semen technology, the extended semen doses can be preserved for years together and permit wide spread use of superior germplasm. Artificial insemination is a powerful tool mostly employed for livestock improvement. The advantages and limitations of frozen semen technology are enlisted below:

The idea behind semen dilution is to extend its volume without affecting its fertility so that many females can be bred from an ejaculate. The basic components of semen extender are Tris buffer, fructose, glycerol, egg yolk and antibiotics.

Liquid nitrogen and cryocan

Several cryogenic agents like solid carbon-di-oxide (-79^ºC), liquid air (-183^ºC), liquid helium  (-263^ºC) and liquid nitrogen (-196^ºC) have been used in many countries for freezing and preservation of bovine semen. Liquid nitrogen is fourth coldest substance known and its small amount is converted into a very large amount (near about 700 times) of its volume when exposed to atmosphere. It is a colourless, odorless, non-irritant, non-toxic, non-caustic, non-corrosive, non-inflammatory and inert gas having boiling point of -196^ºC. Being a liquid it comes into good contact with the surface of the semen straws, constant storage temperature is maintained throughout the straw, and due to these properties LN2 is most widely used refrigerant for semen cryopreservation in the world. 

6.1    Introduction
    
6.2    Fertilizers in Drip Fertigation
    
6.3    Drip Fertigation Systems
    
6.4    Rate of Fertilizer Application
    Questions and Problems
        
References

1.    Gummosis
        
2.    Canker
        
3.    Scab/Verucosis
        
4.    Tristeza or quick decline
        
5.    Greening
        
6.    Exocortis or scaly butt

1.    Club root or Finger and toe
        
2.    Downy mildew
        
3.    Powdery mildew
        
4.    Alternaria leaf spot
        
5.    White rust
        
6.    Black rot
        
7.    Bacterial soft rot

1.    Downy mildew
        
2.    Powdery mildew
        
3.    Anthracnose
        
4.    Cercospora leaf spot
        
5.    Alternaria blight
        
6.    Bacterial wilt

1.    Damping off
        
2.    Purple blotch
        
3.    Smut
        
4.    Downy mildew
        
5.    Leaf blight (blast)
        
6.    Black mould

Abstract

Access to reliable and affordable irrigation is one of the most important enablers to increase agricultural productivity and income for farmers. An innovative Manual Axis Tracking Solar Pump model and its utility in providing affordable irrigation has been discussed in this paper. The proposed Manual Axis Tracking Solar Pump can increase output on an average 8%-12% more than fixed panel and is much cheaper than automated tracking. This paper deliberates upon the technical features that make the Manual Axis Tracking Solar Pump an advantage over its nearest competitor, the diesel pump. Government of India has already introduced various subsidy-based solar pump schemes and most of them are not popular because of low discharge issue. The low discharge issue can be solved by this proposed optimum tilt-based Manual Tracking Solar Pump, whose sustainable market penetration is suggested through various strategies in the paper, supported by case studies. The proposed entrepreneurship model not only opens a new era of agricultural business but also helps to reduce the GHG emissions.

Abstract

Trade Related Agreements on Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) widely affects the agricultural sector which is largely unorganised in India. At the same time this sector remains the bread winner for majority of the population of the country. The Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) affect the extensive and intensive margins in agricultural trade. This paper draws attention of enterprises in the field of agricultural biotechnology which has genetic modification (GM) as one of its core activity. GM is of benefit in terms of value additive features but also of great concern for the community in conservation of biodiversity. Food & Agricultural Organisation (FAO), being aware of the pitfalls of implementing IPRs in agriculture, constituted an expert panel to study the issues pertaining to the sector. They came up with very clear directives to the FAO on the course of action. This paper aims to focus on this area to identify the micro-level dynamics of IPRs in agriculture and its effects on the rural enterprises in India. The impact of IPRs and its ramifications, the issues of agricultural productivity and its future trajectory, are to be understood from the perspective of an entrepreneur’s policy decisions. This will lead to identification of policies that would help in harnessing IPRs for the growth of Indian agriculture.

Abstract

This paper studies the role and status of Indian Agricultural Market Intelligence System (IAMIS) in improving the economic returns of agri-sector in India. Marketing intelligence makes agricultural marketers, including agri-entrepreneurs, aware and updated and reduces risk in decision making. India produced 275.112 million tonnes of food grains in 2016-17 and the projected requirement is 311million tonnes in 2030. Income of farmers has increased at a CAGR of 10.61% and number of farmers has declined at a CAGR of -0.25% from 1993-94 to 2014-15. Acreage remains stagnant. Given this background, to exploit full potential of agricultural production, market intelligence has a great role. The DES and Department of Food with their 435 market information systems (MIS) units transmit daily information through public media. The essential prerequisite of ensuring farmers’income is that they need credible information about “likely price situation”. Agriculture Marketing Intelligence System (AMIS, 2011) has emerged with the aim to provide services in agriculture and allied sectors. ICAR (1991) took initiatives under World Bank to assist National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) and Export Market Intelligence Cell (EMIC) was set up in Tamil Nadu with ten State Agricultural Universities. This paper uses globally available price forecasting models (ARIMA, GARCH, etc.)on 20 crops to provide an idea of the existing status and policies in agricultural market intelligence.

The digestive system of insects comprises of two main sub-parts, one is the alimentary tract or also known as the digestive tract and the associated digestive glands. These digestive glands may be associated directly or indirectly such as, salivary glands, gastric, caeca (directly) and Malpighian tubules (indirect). If we have to describe an insect and its anatomy, or its histology, it is based on the orthopteroid plan, which is mostly shown by grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts, because their plan shows and describes the basic, primitive design from which other groups of insects have enolved and showed modifications and specialization. We can say that this orthoptera insect shows the general anatomical and histological features of a generalised insect.Today, we see that insects have invaded and adapted in almost all types of habitats and the major reason for their biological success is their ability to show digestion, utilization and their ability to eat an extremely vast diversity of food. It is due to this abilityof extremizm in food diversity that insects have undergone many specializations and modifications of the alimentary canal. What modifications a species of insects undergoes, depends upon the type of insects, depends upon the type of food it consumes. The diversity is also seen in the way of obtaining, storing, processing and absorbing the food. These differences may be structural or functional or both. It is not necessary that these differences must be present in different species only, those may be shown by different life stages of a single insect, by two sexes of a single species, etc. e.g., the difference between the mouths parts of mosquito species.

Insects show sexual Dimorphism i.e., the sexes are usually separate and are dioecious. Male reproductive system produces sperms, stores them and delivers them i.e., spermatozoa. It also produces the seminal fluid, which provides a suitable environment to the sperms and nourishes them. Male reproductive system also situmilates are the female for oviposition. The female reproductive system produces and stores eggs provide nutrition to them for embryonic development, recieves and stores the sperms, is a site of fertilization. Female reproductive system also deposite eggs and may provide additional protection to the embryos. The reproductive system of both male and female insect’s bearis a gononpore, which is an opening of a pair of gonads. Both the gonads open into the gonopore by a median duct. For the secondry sexual purposes, e.g., formation of spermatophore and egg-case or ootheca, some accessory glands are associated with the reproductive system.

Many insect can be observed at any hour of the day. This is proper understanding of the taxonomy and biology. The insect collection, storage and preservation are useful technique of their culture. The best period for collection is from early spring to late rainfall and the best time of the collection of most of the species is during the daytime. The insect are polyphagous and therefore, plants provide one of the best collecting places. Insect can be picked, swept off the plant with the help of a net. Different species feed on different kinds of plant, one should therefore, examine all sorts of plant, flowers weed shrubs and trees. Few insect are only found in the stem, bark, wood, fruit or roots etc. Some species can be found in the leaf mud and litter on the surface of the soil, particularly in woods or areas where the vegetation is dense, others can be found under stones bark etc. other house hold insects may be observed feeding on clothing, furniture, grain, food and other parts of Plant and House and some are aquatic insects.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship is regarded as one of the most important factors that contribute to economic development of a country. The current epoch of development is marked by structural changes in developing economies to create new opportunities of entrepreneurship. This is largely made possible by liberal policy interventions that foster enhancement of enterprises of all hues. Unlike previously, in every country, an entrepreneur is looked upon as an invaluable contributor to economic growth and development. This is more important in developing economies, as ‘entrepreneurship development’ has multiplier effects as it invariably fulfils other important pre requisites of development, viz. innovation, technological development, new institutions and human resource development. To put it in other words, without enterprise and entrepreneurs, there would be little innovation, little productivity growth, and few new jobs. This is more relevant in the agricultural sector since the emphasis has now shifted from mere enhancement of productivity to value chain management, through a process of extensive entrepreneurship development. More so, this has been identified as a strategy for sustaining the livelihood options of small farmers who have found it difficult to thrive the perils of price fluctuations, increasing cost of production and several other uncertainties that have plagued the farm sector.

Abstract

The arid Kachchh district, located at the western most part of the Gujarat State in India, is known for its large extent of area under wetland habitat, which is represented by numerous seasonal water bodies and coastal habitats. Vast stretch of grasslands also available in the northern border of the district, the Banni (23⁰ 19’ to 23⁰ 52’ N; 68⁰ 56’ to 70⁰ 32’ E), which encompasses an area of 2,617 km². There are many depressions in Banni, locally known as Dhandh (shallow lakes). During monsoon, rainwater gets collected in these depressions and form shallow lakes. About 34 smaller and bigger size Dhandhs are present in the Banni. Banni communities are highly dependent on the Dhandhs for various purposes. Due to the erratic rainfall in arid Kachchh, Maldharis is highly unstable for livestock in search of fodder and water during drought years. During the normal rainfall years, livestock from neighboring talukas of Kachhh and even from other districts depends on this grassland and Dhandhs. During last decade, the Banni grasslands have seen serious environmental changes due to the invasion of an exotic plant Prosopis juliflora and increasing the salinity are the major issues of Dhandh degradation. Thus, the Banni is gradually losing its capacity to sustain human and livestock population.

Main objectives of the present paper is to examine the local perceptions of wetland and grassland change, socio-economic status, and factors that cause degradation of the wetland and vegetation resources in the Banni grassland.

Abstract

Three seepage tests were carried out for an earth canal at Rawakeeb Research Station (RRS)-west of Omdurman and an average seepage rate of 3.4 m/day was obtained. This value suggests that irrigation canal at RRS should be lined. In addition to that preliminary economic evaluation showed that canal lining is imperative in RRS. A concrete slab form was well designed for lining of RRS canal. Precasting technique and construction technique provided the required water tightness. Economic evaluation was done for RRS canal to investigate the extent of occurrence of supposed advantages, and to estimate costs and benefits and rate of return to lining. The capital expenditure (C), net present worth (NPW) and benefit/cost ratio were found to be 2600.4, 1961.9 and 1.3 respectively which offers a good indicator to adopt the technique.

Since the last decade discussion regarding ecology is being heard. A campaign with a great planning has launched by holding seminar conferences and meets. The ecological problem became a matter of tremendous panic and anxiety. Not only in India but also in entire world this problem is being discussed through all school, colleges and universities on international scale all over world, since it became universal issue now a days. The word ecology was not known to the people 20 years ago, never the less it became familiar even among the villages today. The people in villages are making thorough study of the subject. The experts of ecology from all over the world have been surprised to learn the exhaustive study of the same done by the Indian scholars. We have instituted a separate ministry to look after the environmental problems. The activities injurious to environment are prohibited. An act is there to restrict antienvironmental deeds what made scientists all over the world to take this matter so seriously. Does it mean that the very existence of mankind has been jeopardized by it Let us see what our ancient literature say about the ecology and pollution.

Introduction

Natural Disasters are inevitable, and Indian subcontinent is prone to all type of Natural Disaster either it is flood, drought, cyclone, earthquakes, tsunami or forest fires etc. Disasters can be classified in several ways. A possible sub-division of disaster is: (i) Natural Disasters; (ii) Human made disasters; (iii) Human induced disasters. Another sub-division is related to the main controlling factors leading to a disaster. These may be meteorological, geomorphological/geological, ecological, technological, global environmental and extra terrestrial. Another useful distinction that can be made between disasters is regarding their duration of impact and the time of forewarning. Some disaster strikes within a short period with devastating outcomes; others have a slow onset period with equally or more serious repercussions. According to the available statistics 60% of the total area of Indian subcontinent is venerable to seismic activity of varying intensities, 16% of the country’s total area is drought prone. In India 68% of total sown area of the country is drought prone. Coastal areas of India is exposed to tropical cyclones, tsunami in recent years and among all the disaster occur in the country, River floods are the most frequent and often the most devastating.

Introduction

A disaster is the result of an immediate situation or the result of a long, set process, which disrupts normal human life in its established social, traditional and economic system. This is due to the destruction of environment which is caused by extraordinary natural destructive phenomena or human-induced hazards resulting in human hardship and suffering beyond recovery unless external aid is brought in.

Introduction

Fisheries sector, a sunrise sector in India, has recorded a faster growth than that of crop and livestock sectors (Kumar et al., 2006). The sector contributes to the livelihood of a large section of economically-underprivileged population of the country. It has been recognized as a powerful income and employment generator as it stimulates growth of a number of subsidiary industries and is a source of cheap and nutritious food besides being a foreign exchange earner (Ayyappan and Krishnan, 2004).

With the changing composition pattern, emerging market forces and technological developments, it has assumed added importance in India. It is undergoing rapid transformation and the policy support, production strategies, public investment in infrastructure, and research and extension for fisheries have significantly contributed to the increased fish production. Particularly, after the mid-1980s, the development of carp polyculture technology has completely transformed the tradition backyard activity into a booming commercial enterprise. The aquaculture in the East Godavari delta region prospered with good yields and export driven demand. The paddy belt of the area rapidly converted into aquaculture hotspot owing to high economic benefits. But in recent years the dwindling of aquaculture and frequent losses caused and forced the farmers to withdraw from the once profit driven occupation. Apart from economic analysis, the motive behind this investigation is to find the efficiency of the farmers and the determinants. This will be useful in finding the lacunae in existing system of culture and will address necessities for shifting to new alternative.

Introduction

Programme for self-employment of the poor has been an important component of the anti-poverty programmes implemented through government initiatives in the rural areas in India. The Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is the major ongoing programme for the self-employment of rural poor at present. The programme was started with effect from 01.04.1999 after restructuring of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), and allied programmes namely Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Supply of Toolkits in Rural Areas (SITRA) and Ganga Kalyan Yojna (GKY) and Million Well Scheme (MWS). Govt. of Orissa have launched ‘Mission Shakti’ programme in 2001 with an aim to have at least three lakh WSHGs by the end of 2008. By the end of March 2008, 3.73 lakh WSHGs have been formed under Mission Shakti (Annon, 2007-08). SGSY has contributed substantially in carrying forward the Mission Shakti activities in the state. A study was conducted by the Center for Management and Development, Thiruvananthapuram for concurrent evaluation of the implementation of the SGSY. It was established that the performance of SGSY in Assam, M.P., Orissa, West Bengal and Bihar was the lowest among the major states (Anon, 2002-03). SGSY is implemented in a very deterministic and top down manner, ignoring the participatory approach that is envisaged in the design. Good governance for poverty alleviation programme seems to be more of rhetoric than reality (Shylendra and Bhirdikar, 2005). The Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India has set guidelines for successful implementation of the scheme within the framework of targets under each head. As per the guidelines, all the states are directed to fulfill the targets. After 10 years of implementation of the scheme, an evaluation of the programme in district level and state level is in dire need. Hence, it is attempted to evaluate the physical and financial achievement of the SGSY programme operated at Orissa.

Electron Microscope

An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses a particle beamof electronstoilluminate a specimen and createa highly-magnified image. Electron microscopes have much greater resolving power than light microscopes that use electromagnetic radiation and can obtain much higher magnifications of up to 1 million times, while the best light microscopes are limited to magnifications of 1000 times. Both electron and light microscopes have resolution limitations, imposed by the wavelength of the radiation they use. The greater resolution and magnification of the electron microscope is because the de Broglie wavelength of an electron is much smallerthan that of a photon of visible light.

The electron microscope uses electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses in forming the image by controlling the electron beam to focus it at a specific plane relative to the specimen. This manner is similar to how a light microscope uses glass lenses to focus light on or through a specimen to form an image.

Introduction

India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. Fruits and vegetables are the reservoir of vital nutrients. Being highly perishable, 20-40% of the total production of fruits and vegetables goes waste from the time of harvesting till they reach the consumers. It is, therefore, necessary to make them available for consumption throughout the year in processed or preserved form and to save the sizeable amount of losses. At present, about 2% of the total produce is processed in India mainly for domestic consumption. The most alarming situation is the post harvest losses of fruits and vegetables worth approximately Rs. 18,500 crores per annum. Fruits and vegetables have great potential for value addition and diversification to give a boost to food industry, create employment opportunities and give better returns to the farmers.

Post harvest management of fruits and vegetables plays a significant role in achieving the target of nutritional security to the ever-growing population as well as to meet the requirement of processing industry and export trade.  With the advent and development of food consciousness amongst the consumers, to elaborate food standards, codes of hygienic practice, are necessary to maintain the quality of the food products.

Introduction

Ration formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a proportion necessary to provide the animal with proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular stage of production. It requires the knowledge about nutrients, feedstuffs and animal in the development of nutritionally adequate rations that will be eaten in sufficient amounts to provide the level of production at a reasonable cost. The ration should be palatable and will not cause any serious digestive disturbance or toxic effects to the animal.
 
Different species, strains or classes of animals have different requirements for energy (carbohydrates and fats), proteins, minerals and vitamins in order to maintain its various functions like maintenance, reproduction, egg production, milk production and/or growth.
  
Least-cost ration formulation for non-ruminants is being prepared by  linear computer programming. For ruminants the approach used is to maximize the use of roughage, then, concentrate is used to supply the deficient  nutrients to meet the requirement of the animals. It should be remembered that rations for ruminants are formulated on dry matter basis due to wide variations in moisture content of feeds especially roughage.

Introduction

India is blessed with varied agro-climatic conditions. This enables India to grow almost all types of horticultural crops namely fruits, vegetables, potato, tropical tuber crops and mushroom; ornamental crops; medicinal and aromatic plants, spices and plantation crops like coconut, cashew, cocoa, tea, coffee and rubber, in one region or the other throughout the year. India has now a prominent place in world horticulture scenario. Starting from low ebb during first five year, horticulture sector got a boost in 8th plan onwards as a means of diversification to agriculture. Horticulture today, is not merely a means of diversification as envisaged during 80s, but forms an integral part of food, nutrition, economic and employment security. As a result of proper policy initiatives, India is the second largest producer of the fruits and vegetables in the world contributing about 10 per cent to world fruits and 13.8 per cent to vegetable production. Adoption of horticulture crops in production, both by small and marginal farmers, has brought nutritional security and livelihood security in many regions of the country, e.g. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala and improved overall socioeconomic conditions of the people e.g. Jharkhand and West Bengal.

Introduction

Vermicompost is an organic manure (bio-fertilizer) produced as the vermicast by earth worm feeding on biological waste material and plant residues. This compost is an odorless and clean organic material containing adequate quantities of N, P, K and several micronutrients essential for plant growth. Vermicompost is a preferred nutrient source for organic farming. It is eco-friendly, non-toxic, consumes low energy input for composting and is a recycled biological product. Earthworms are soil invertebrates well known for their contribution to soil transformation and turnover, by breaking down of organic material. The effect of earthworms on soils can take three main forms: effects on biological, physical, or chemical soil properties and processes. These can operate eother directly or indirectly.
 
Farmers are aware that earthworms are generally beneficial.  However, few are familiar with the important species they have on their land and the amount or number of earthworm required for their soil is also a big question to them. It is important that farmers must identify and familiarize with the species of earthworms so that they can be utilized for the purpose of vermicomposting.

Introduction

The productivity of pulses in India has remained stagnant over the past several decades. In the case of pigeonpea, which a major pulse crop in India, it has been hovering around 700 kg ha-1 for the last five decades. Uttar Pradesh (UP) occupies 9.14% (2.16 million ha) of the total area under pigeonpea in the country (23.63 million ha). Poor crop management practices adopted by the farmers, non-availability of quality seed of improved varieties, damage by insect pests and diseases and drought are some of the factors responsible low productivity in pulses. In a recent review, Maruthi Shankar et al. (2004) identified shortage of quality seed as one of the major constraints for increasing pigeonpea production in India. The genetically pure seed alone can increase productivity by 10-15% (Saxena, 2006).

Despite release of several improved varieties of pigeonpea, local landraces dominate the cultivation of pigeonpea in the country. Timely availability of quality seed of improved varieties at affordable price remains one of the major concerns in pigeonpea cultivation. Most of the farmers procure their pigeonpea seed from local traders or rely on their ‘own-saved’ seed.

Introduction

The process of agricultural modernization has produced three distinct types of agriculture. These are industrialized, green revolution and low-external input and unimproved (Chambers et al. 1989) . The industrialized and the green revolution agriculture have been able to respond to the technological package, producing high input, high output systems of agriculture. Most agricultural systems in the industrialized countries count as high external input systems save for the relatively small number of organic farmers (Pretty 1995) . In the countries of the Third World, high-external input systems are found in the large irrigated plains and deltas of South, Southeast and East Asia, and parts of Latin America and North America, but also in patches in other regions. In the industrialized countries farmers modernized by introducing machinery, replacing labour, specializing operations and changing practices to ensure greater production. In the green revolution areas the success lay in agricultural scientists breeding new varieties of stable cereals that matured quickly, and use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, credit and water regulation.

Introduction

Home to the largest population of poor in the world, India has been a natural candidate for experimenting with micro finance as a tool for poverty alleviation. With a nationalized formal banking sector that has emphasized rural and developmental banking for several decades now, India’s involvement with small credit targeted primarily at the rural poor is hardly new. Micro-credit, in the sense of small loans to the poor, is of ancient origin in India. Micro-Finance has, in recent times, come to be recognised and accepted as one of the new development paradigms for alleviating poverty through social and economic empowerment of the poor, with focus on empowering women. Experiences of different anti-poverty and other welfare programmes within the country and elsewhere, have shown that the key to its success lies in the participation of community based organisations at the grassroot level. People’s participation in credit delivery, recovery and linking of formal credit institutions to borrowers through the intermediation of Self Help Groups (SHGs) have been recognised as a supplementary mechanism for providing credit support to the rural poor. Poor people need micro-credit for various and different purposes. It may be to meet the major household expenses, emergency needs or even basic livelihood support.

ABSTRACT

The state of Jammu and Kashmir, especially the valley of Kashmir, has a rich diversity of traditional agroforestry models, which are in existence since time immemorial. Agroforestry is based primarily on natural occurrence of trees. The paper highlights the traditional agroforestry systems prevailing in the valley. A number of studies have been undertaken since the inception of AICRP-AF in University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Kashmir. Besides design and diagnostic survey, studies on evaluation of twelve multipurpose tree species identified during design and diagnostic survey and designing of various agroforestry models for different problematic sites have been undertaken. These studies have been tested over a period of time and have been found suitable for different sites. The out come of these studies and the recommended agroforestry systems are given in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Land is a vital natural resource and is the basis of our existence. Due to mounting pressure of increasing human and livestock population it has been subjected to various pressures and misuse resulting in degradation of land and loss of biodiversity. Management of land is therefore, of paramount importance so that increasing needs of human and livestock are met on sustainable basis. During the last three decades agroforestry has been recognised as a distinct land management system, which is destined to play an important role in socio-economic transformation of marginal lands into more productive agrarian economy. India has a long tradition of agroforestry, farmers and land owners in different parts of the country integrate a variety of woody perennials in their crop and livestock production fields, depending upon the agro climatic conditions and local needs. Most of these practices are, however, location specific and information on these is very scanty, therefore, benefits have remained vastly under exploited and un extrapolated to other sites.

ABSTRACT

Deforestation, land degradation, biodiversity decline, demand of fuelwood, fodder and timber had necessitated the planners and scientists to develop a system of cropping which would be able to revert these detrimental effect of exploitation and simultaneously provide the day-to-day needs. In present paper we have revisited our ancestors who practiced agriculture in a sustainable basis by keeping trees in the field. This paper intends to highlight some of the problems which are being faced in North-Western Himalayas and suggest different agroforestry practices which should be adopted to sustainable utilize our resources.

INTRODUCTION

Though late, the country and the society have gradually started to realize the detrimental deterioration of our ecosystem and environment. There are several factors and reasons for the same. However, land use in the country in general and hills in particular have proved to be one of the most important factors and needs much of attention for proper planning. The vital role of the forests in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem has long been acknowledged world over. In our country too, it was rightly resolved through a National Forest Policy Resolution in the years 1952 to bring at least twothird of the land in hills under the forest cover. This decision, though wise timely and farsighted, was never implemented with same spirit and there are evidences to accept the fact that effective forest cover in hilly areas is far less. The increasing need of expanding industrialization and urbanization coupled with population growth, the process of illegal and indiscriminate cutting of trees is resulting in consistent decrease of forest cover in the hills. The cultivation of land on steep slopes and hillsides is causing heavy loss of top soil and depleting the productivity of these soils besides siltation of river beds and cultivated lands down below. Coupled with this is the reckless destruction of vegetative cover by way of over-grazing which is resulting in large scale denudation and degradation of lands and thereby increasing acreage under wastelands. With this background the regular rains for which most of our country was well known have become irregular and drought have become a permanent menace and crores of rupees spent on relief work. The need for developing correct methodologies of land uses has become imperative to protect the existing forest cover, whether on public or private lands. Forest influences the rural prosperity and the human needs for the growing population have to be ensured while preserving the environment and ecological balance. A sustainable land-use system in conformity with ecological stability, economic viability and above risk aversion is desirable land use pattern in the Himalayan region.

ABSTRACT

The western part of India particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan received erratic and scanty rainfall and have sandy to sandy loam soil. In such climatic and edaphic conditions failure of crop is a regular phenomenon. In such situations a cropping system is required which can protect the associated crops from extremes of climatic condition and/or provide alternative/additional income. Agroforestry has such potentials; as a result lot of research had been done on agroforestry. This paper provides some of the agroforestry system and practices, which are suitable for Gujarat. The hurdles in adoption of agroforestry and its future prospects are also provided.

INTRODUCTION

North and North-West Gujarat fall under scarcity zone, where rainfall is inadequate as well as erratic in nature. Sandy loam soils with low moisture retention capacity pose problems of low and unstable crop production and degradation due to soil erosion. Under these situation, adoption of a high yielding, more remunerative, cost effective, compatible and multipurpose system ie Agroforestry is a dire necessity.

ABSTRACT

Homegardens are traditional agroforestry systems present throughout the northeast India especially in foothill region. The high diversity and the intensive care that is given to the homegarden in and around Arunachal Pradesh results in a unique combination of high levels of productivity, stability and sustainability of the system. The homegardens studied here were vertically distributed in four different layers viz, floor, middle, sub-canopy and canopy. Such stratification has given rise to the distribution of a variety of species based on light requirement in the system. Density and diversity index of tree species in the homegardens were highest in Harmutty in the foothills (468.5 plants ha^-1 and 1.17 respectively), whereas lower values were recorded in Ziro in the upper elevation (16 plants ha^-1, 0.651 respectively). Soil nutrients were greater in Harmutty, followed by Doimukh, Nirjuli and then Ziro. Maximum plant detrital (litter and fine roots) biomass and their subsequent decomposition in the homegardens of Harmutty (10185.67 kg ha^-1) might be the probable reason for the efficient nutrient cycling and generation of more available nutrients.

ABSTRACT

Tamil Nadu, the southern most state of India has 8 per cent of the country’s population and its net sown area is only 4-5 per cent of the country’s area. The state is endowed with varied physiography from hills to coastal lands and hence varied agroclimatic and edaphic conditions. This paper details the characteristics of different agroclimate and provides varied perennial and annual components being practiced in different combinations in these agroforestry systems.

INTRODUCTION

Land is a major non renewable natural resource. With the increase in population, the demand of land for all activities increases. The requirement of food, fibre, fodder and fuel of the ever increasing population has to be met with the finite land resources. In India, the pattern of land use in agriculture and forestry took a drastic turn during the period from fifties to eighties. Conservation, development and management of the available land is basic for ensuring food, ecological, environmental and economic security of our country. Tamil Nadu’s population is around 8 per cent of the total country and the net sown area is only a meager 4-5 per cent of that of the country. With the ever increasing population and expanding industrialization, steps need to be taken to utilize the land to the optimum extent possible and to identify and utilize lands effectively and efficiently in order to make full use of their maximum capability.

ABSTRACT

The integration of woody perennials on the farm lands for obvious reasons has been the common practice with the farming community for ages. It is true that the integration of trees on the farmland, albeit paves the way for the improvement of existing system, but nevertheless creates complex biological interactions, which may not necessarily result in yield advantage. Management of multipurpose tree species, especially agroforestry tree species, integrated on the farmland with crops, is essential for two reasons, i) because canopy size decides the transmission of photosynthetically active radiation to the understorey crops and ii) that the impact of canopy management practices some times have drastic implications. Canopy management practices like coppicing; pollarding and partial crown removal not only affects foliage and branch wood biomass production but also modifies physiological parameters and resource utilization pattern. This paper deals with the need and techniques of managing canopy as well as the research activities carried out in this regards.

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses distribution of bamboo, their uses and bamboo based agroforestry systems in India and their future potential. Bamboo, one of the fastest growing plant species is extremely versatile and has been traditionally put to a large number of uses. Application of modern technology and industrial processing has catapulted bamboo into a new global limelight. At present there is huge demand of bamboo based raw material viz., timber, plywood, bamboo flooring, edible bamboo shoots, etc. in the international market and most of the international market of bamboo is captured by China. In India, most of the bamboo raw material comes from natural forest. To capture the emerging bamboo market we have to increase the bamboo cultivation outside the forest under different bamboo based agroforestry systems. Experiments have shown that bamboo based agrisilviculture systems is technically and economically feasible in our country under different agro-ecological conditions. The agriculture crops which can be profitably grown with bamboo are soybean, pigeon pea, ginger, turmeric, etc. Keeping in view the international scenario, ecological conditions and taking clues from China’s success stories, some of the bamboo based agroforestry system components are also proposed.

A. Write the full form of the following:

i.         AAFCO: Association of American Feed Control Officials.

ii.        AAS: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

iii.       HPLC: High Performance/Pressure Liquid Chromatography

iv.       GLC: Gas Liquid Chromatography

v.        AFRC: Agriculture & Food Research Council.

vi.       AICRP: All India Coordinated Research Project.

vii.      AOAC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists

viii.     ARC: Agricultural Research Council (United Kingdom)

ix.      BIS: Bureau of Indian Standard

x.      CIRC: Central Institute for Research on Cattle, Meerut

xi.     CIRG: Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom.

xii.    CLFMA: Compounded Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association (of India)

xiii.   COP 22: 22nd Conference of Parties.

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is concentrate ingredients?

Ans: These are feedstuffs having more than 60% TDN, less than 35% cell wall contents and less than 18% crude fibre on dry matter basis.

2.    What is soilage?

Ans: Pasture whether natural or cultivated when cut and fed green to an animal in its own stall is called soilage.

3.    What is husk?

Ans: Dry outer covering of grains and grams e.g. gram husk, rice husk.

4.    What is fodder?

Ans: Any green plant or crop meant for animal feeding for supply of nutrients and bulk.

5.    What is leguminous fodder?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is the DM consumption in adult guinea pig? Ans. An adult animal consumes @ 7-8% of body weight.

2.    Mention daily average feed consumption of guinea pigs?

Ans: Growing Guinea pigs: 20-30g, Adult maintenance: 30-50g, Pregnant and lactating: 40-60g.

3.    Write down the peculiarities of digestive system of guinea pig.

Ans. The entire stomach of guinea pig is lined with glandular epithelium and gastric mucosa does not have a keratinized portion.

4.    Why guinea pig cannot synthesize vitamin C?

When we talk about importance of feed technology in relation to animal productivity, feed represents the major cost in animal production as follows -
Feed processing includes all operations necessary to achieve the maximum potential of nutritional value of a feed stuff. The process involves changing ingredients in such a manner as to maximize their natural value and the net returns from their use. Feed processing may be accomplished by Physical, Chemical, Thermal, Bacterial or other changes of a feed ingredient before it is fed. The primary reasons for processing feeds are to make changes in the moisture content, density of feed, particle size, palatability; or to make more profit, to improve nutrient availability, keeping quality; or to reduce storage -transportation space, cost, moulds, salmonella and other harmful substances. Detoxification of undesirable components because some feeds may contain toxic substances, theexcess consumption of whichmaycausedecreased nutritive value of the feeds or may injure some vital organs or even cause death. Some natural inhibitors in feedstuffs are as following :

1. Introduction

Ohmic heating is an emerging method of thermal processing which have the feature of HTST treatment (Halden et al., 1990) with lower energy inputs (Choi et al., 2011; Sastry et al., 2011). During ohmic heating (Fig. 1) the alternating current is passed through the food material, where food acts as a resistor to the flow of electric current and leads to the instant volumetric heat generation by following the Joules first law of heating (Pereira & Vicente 2010; Lima et al., 1999 and 2001; Wang, 2014). Ohmic heat treatment of food material has been found to reduce microbial load of the food material simultaneously with the inactivation of the inherent enzymes (Demirdoven & Baysal 2014; Yildiz & Baysal 2006; Jakob et al., 2010). Despite the problems of electrochemical degradation associated with it, ohmic heating has been successfully studied for its use in preheating, blanching, pasteurization and extraction (Leizerson, & Shimoni, 2005; Lima & Sastry, 1999; Lakkakula et al., 2004). A majority of studies that have explored the effect of ohmic treatment have focused on a number of commercial products from pulp (strawberry), or puree (pea) to juice (grape), etc. (Castro et al, 2004; Icier et al, 2008; Icier et al., 2006). However, the present chapter is confined to put some light on the studies conducted on ohmic heating of various liquid food material and its effects on various parameters of the food material.

Introduction

The basic physiological structures of mammary glands in all species are almost same and are located externally in order to fulfill the milk requirement of neonates after parturition. The process of secretion of milk from the mammary glands is known as lacto genesis. Milk provides an almost complete nutrition to neonates from birth till weaning period. It is a complex mixture of various constituents like:

Lipids such a striacyl glycerols(TAG),phospholipids,cholesterols and other sterols, free fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins

Carbohydrates such as lactose, oligosaccharides

Proteins such a scaseins, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, immunoglobulin’s, bovine serum albumin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, enzymes, hormones and growth factors

Non-protein nitrogenous compounds like urea, creatine, creatinine, uric acid and amino acids

Major and minor minerals, water-soluble vitamins and cells (leucocytes, macrophages, and epithelial cells).

ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE MADE UP OF UNITS CALLED CELLS

All living creatures are made from 1 or more cells

All cells are produced from previously existing cells (no spontaneous generation)

All cells appear to be descended from the first cell which existed about 4 billion years ago

For a species to exist its reproductive cells must be potentially immortal (no aging)

Our bodies start from a single cell and contain about 100,000,000,000,000 (10^14) cells at maturity

MOST OF THE ENERGY FOR LIFE COMES FROM SUNLIGHT

Total rate of energy delivery from sun to earth (at the top of the atmosphere) = 175,000 terrawatts

Terrawatt = 10^12 watts

Rate of energy capture by plants from the sun = net primary productivity (NPP) = 100 terrawatts

Only ~ 0.06% of sunlight is captured

Captured in chemical bonds, especially in sugar

Small amounts of energy are available to specialized microorganisms from chemical reactions not linked to sunlight

It is estimated that 99% of the energy used by living cells comes from the sun

Incorporation of sunlight into chemical bonds occurs through the process of photosynthesis

“Invented” by cyanobacteria about 2 billion years ago

I. Definitions

Transpiration - evaporation of water from a plant surface

Evapotranspiration - evaporation of water from a plant surface and the soil (and abiotic surroundings.

Take-home-lesson: Plants loose a lot of water by transpiration. See text for some specific examples.

INTRODUCTION

In spite of technological developments for the last few decades, Indian agriculture is still rain dependent. Extreme weather events such as drought in 2002, cold wave during 2002-03, heat wave in the year 2003, increased temperatures during rabi 2003-04 and 2004-05, deficit rainfall in many parts of the country during 2004 and excess rains in 2005 (100cm in Mumbai, floods in MP, Gujarat, Orissa, AP, Tamilnadu and Karnataka) could affect the food grain production considerably. The spatial and temporal changes in important weather parameters such as rainfall, temperature, wind, cloud cover, humidity, etc. would influence crop yields by affecting farmers’ decision in selection of cultivar, use of inputs, crop management practices, etc. These decisions significantly influence the aggregate agricultural output, which , in succession has an impact on the economy of the country as a whole. Thus, the timely and accurate weather based agro -advisories is the need of the hour for sustainable agricultural production.

Further, the quality of utility of agro-advisories can be improved through value addition to the agromet information including forecast and demonstration of economic benefits accrued due to the following of the advisories. Thus making farmers to adapt weather-based advisories for (i) Increasing the quality and quantity of produce, (ii) Efficient utilization of resources, (iii) Minimizing losses due to adverse weather, (iv) Effective utilization of favourable weather events, and (v) Reducing cost of cultivation to enhance profits.

“I think that there is far too much work done in the world,” writes Bertrand Russell in In Praise of Idleness. Rightly so, a workaholic is not necessarily a valued employee. Why we work, asks Barry Schwartz. Why for most of us work is monotonous and meaningless? Why we have twice as many “actively disengaged” workers in the world as there are “engaged” workers?

Do we work only for money? Some think, work is about pay and nothing more. It is true, people work for money, but not always. Many people work for the challenge, meaning, and engagement it brings. “The lesson here is that just how important material incentives are to people will depend on how the human workplace is structured. And if we structure it in keeping with the false idea that people work only for pay, we’ll create workplaces that make this false idea true,” writes Schwartz.

1 Professor (Retired) Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641 003, Tamil Nadu

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Agricultural College & Research Institute, Madurai-625 104

Introduction

The word ‘Extension’ was first coined in U.S.A. in the mid-part of the nineteenth century, to connote extension knowledge of improved practices in agriculture and home economics from Land Grant Colleges to the farmers and their families in their fields and homes. The literary meaning of Extension is ‘Ex’-out; Tensio’-to stretch i.e. Extension means stretching out. Extension, in the context of rural community development, means educating rural people and it implies production of changes in human behaviour -in terms of attitude, knowledge and skill. Extension is often misconceived as disbursement of subsidies and providing certain material incentives; it is certainly not.

There are several conventional extension techniques approaches and tools for transfer of any farm -related technologies, be it any enterprise, crop or their mix. Extension teaching aids are broadly classified as:

9.1 Introduction

Many physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, electric current etc. can be measured using polarization-modulated sensors. In these sensors modulation of state of polarization of light in the sensing region by an external stimuli takes place. A variety of physical effects influence the state of polarization of light. These phenomena are Faraday effect, electro-optic effect and photo-elastic effect. Polarization modulated sensors, in some cases, offer significant advantages not only over conventional sensors but also over widely used fiber optic interferometric sensors. These sensors require control over the state of polarization of light entering the sensing region of the fiber. Thus, for these sensors, highly birefringent fibers or single mode fibers are used. In this chapter we shall first discuss magneto/electro-optic effects and then shall describe sensors for the measurement of electric current/ magnetic field, voltage, pressure, temperature etc. utilizing polarization modulation.