eChapters

10.1 Introduction

There are very few frequency modulated fiber optic sensors. This is because frequency modulation of light occurs under a limited range of physical conditions. The principal one is based on Doppler effect. There are few other circumstances under which the frequency of light is modulated. These include luminescence and Raman scattering. Luminescence has been included in chapter 7under fluorescence based sensors. In this chapter we shall focus on the sensors based on Doppler effect and Raman scattering. In particular, we shall discuss the measurement of blood flow velocity, colloidal particle motion and Raman spectrum using optical fibers.

11.1 Introduction

In previous chapters we have described fiber optic sensors based on intensity and phase modulations. These sensors have some problems in practical applications that need to be solved. Some of these are fluctuation of light source power, loss in couplers, scattering and absorption effects that affect measurement performance, temperature drifts and vibrations. In comparison to intensity and phase modulated sensors fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have following advantages:

High resolution

Insensitive to intensity fluctuation because the signal obtained from an FBG sensor is encoded directly in wavelength domain.

Provision of well localized sensing region

Linear output as a function of the measurand

The capability of multiplex many sensors along one fiber

12.1 Introduction

Among a variety of optical evanescent wave techniques, spectroscopies based on the resonant excitation of surface plasmons have matured into a widely accepted surface analytical method used in different fields. Liedberg et al¹ were the first who demonstrated the exploitation of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for chemical sensing. Since then the SPR sensing principle has received much attention. In this chapter we shall first describe the principle of this technique and then few sensors that have utilized this phenomenon.

INTRODUCTION

China aster is one of the most popular annual flowering plant grown throughout the world. Among annuals it ranks next to chrysanthemum and marigold and is grown mainly by marginal and small farmers. It can easily be grown in the open fields and lath houses for the roduction of cut flowers Cut asters last long and are used in vases and floral decoration. When asters are grown in large mass, they make very showy bedding plants and are valuable for filling up the gap in mixed herbaceous border. The dwarf types are put in front and the taller behind.

Some strains are used as pot plants, while dwarf cultivars are suitable for edging and window boxes. The prominent colours of flowers are blue, violet, lavender, rose, white, etc. In tropical and subtropical countries aster is extensively grown for bedding and cut blooms during winter month and spring. China aster is one of the most important traditional flowers in India and has maximum use for traditional purposes. The commercial importance of China aster is increasing in India especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra.

INTRODUCTION

Marigold is an important flower crop and constitute as one of the five most commonly cultivated and used flower in urban and rural India. They are extensively used for making garlands, beautification and other purposes i.e. pigment and oil extraction and thera eutic uses A art from these uses marigold is a widely grown plant in gardens and pots. It is highly suitable as a bedding plant, in a herbaceous border and is also ideal for newly planted shrubberies to provide colour and fill the space. French marigold is most ideal for rockery, edging, hanging baskets and window boxes. Flowers remain fresh for 4-5 days at room temperature and are used for religious offerings and social functions. Recently marigolds are grown commercially for extraction of carotene pigments mainly xanthophylls. The carotenoid extracted from petals are added to poultry feed for intensification of yellow colour of egg yolk. Lutein which is the major constituent of xanthophylls is used for colouring food stuffs. Purified extract of marigold petals containing lutein dipalmitate is marketed as an ophthalmologic agent under the name adaptinol. Dietary carotenoids can be used to treat cancer and photosensitivity diseases.

Marigold leaves contain a distinct odoriferous oil. Wild marigold (Tagetes minuta) oil has valuable and precious essential oil which is used in high grade perfumes and cosmetics. Ketones present in the oil are base material for synthesizing aroma chemicals. Marigold essential oil has bronchodilatory, tranquilizing, anit-inflammatory as well as insect repellent activities. The floral extract of marigold is used for treating eye diseases and ulcers.

1.    Which of the following plastic film is not utilized for metalized flexible packaging?

(a) Polyester

(b) Low-density polyethylene

(c) Bakelite

(d) PVDC

2.    Tin-coating applied to steel base is carried out by

(a) Hot- dipping method

(b) Electrolytic deposition

(c) Cold-dipping method

(d) None of these

Mushrooms are most ancient, best known and greatly admired fleshy macrofungi. Mushrooms are delicacies, much sought after and greatly valued foods. Wild mushrooms are mostly found in forests, tree trunks, pastures, lawns and road side during winter season and appear at surprising speed. Mushroom hunting or gathering is a popular hobby in Western countries. The wild mushrooms may be edible or unpalatable or poisonous. Poisoning by wild mushrooms is common and may be fatal or produce merely mild gastrointestinal disturbance or slight allergic reaction. The term toad stool is popularly reserved for inedible or poisonous mushrooms, but this classification has no scientific basis. This alarming term keeps many people away from these foods. It is important that every mushroom intended for eating be accurately identified. Mushrooms vary in colour, size, shape, growth habit, yielding ability and other characteristics.

STRUCTURE: Mushrooms are the fleshy fungi which constitute a major group of lower plant kingdom. Mushroom is the conspicuous umbrella-shaped fruiting body (sporophore) of certain fungi of the order Agaricales in the class Basidiomycetes but also of some other groups. Popularly, the term mushroom is used to identify the edible sporophores. The edible reproductive part consists of a stem and a cap. Gills found on the underside of the cap, are arranged like spokes in a wheel. The gills bear multiple spores which start new fungi. The sporophore emerges from an extensive underground network of fine thread like white growth known as mycelium. The mushroom, fruit body produced basidiospores at the tip of club like structures, called basidia, which are arranged along the gills of the mushroom. Beneath the mushroom, in the soil, is the mold colony itself, consisting of a mat of intercoiled hyphae, sometimes several feet in diameter. The mushrooms first appear as white tiny ball consisting of short stem (stipe) and a cap (pileus) which begins to open up like an umbrella. The delicate membrane or Veil (velum) enveloping the cap tears off, if allowed to develop fully, and lamellae (gills) radiating from the stalk into the cap become visible. These gills become darkened as the basidiospores (seeds) develop into millions and fall in the ground for starting their life cycle once again for second generation of mushrooms.

11.1. FRUITS-Maturation, Ripening and Storage

Fruits are natural foods containing substantial quantities of essential nutrients and the best sources of minerals like sodium, potassium and magnesium, vitamins (antioxidants), such as vitamin A, C and enzymes. They are rich in fructose and water. Fruits are living biological entities that perform a number of metabolic functions. Two functions of particular importance in fruit processing are respiration (the breaking down of carbohydrates, giving off carbon dioxide and heat) and transpiration (the giving off of moisture). Senescence is the period when chemical synthesizing pathways give way to degradative processes, leading to aging and death of tissue. Fruit ripening is thus the result of many complex changes, some interactive but many independent of one another. Once the fruit is harvested, respiration and transpiration continue, but only for as long as the fruit can draw on its own food reserves and moisture. It is this limited ability to continue vital metabolic functions that defines fruit as perishable.

Microorganisms (or microbes) are organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. The science of microbiology is the study of microorganisms, their properties, classification, growth requirements, method of reproduction and distribution in nature. These organisms range in size from tiny viruses to larger bacteria, protozoa, algae, fungi and some of the microscopic worms (helminthes). They are present everywhere in our environment, in our homes, on our bodies, on the things we touch and on the food we eat. They are important for human survival on Earth, playing an essential role in many processes that maintain life. In nature, microorganisms carry out a number of important functions.

1.They are responsible for the decomposition of organic matter.

2.Recycling of nutrients that help to maintain the balance of chemicals in the soil.

3.Special nitrogen-fixing bacteria live symbiotically with certain plants, absorbing nitrogen from the air and converting it into compounds which can be used by the plant for growth.

4.Some algae are capable of photosynthesis, using energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide in air into carbohydrate.

5.Marine microorganisms form the basis of the food chain in lakes, rivers and oceans.

6.Certain microorganisms are used in the manufacture of food.

7.Pharmaceuticals and drugs.

8.Industrial processes.

9.A valuable tool for scientific research.

10.Use in laboratory experiments to understanding metabolic pathways and in the discovery of the genetic code.

Growth of a microorganism implies an increase in amount of protoplasm, formation of new structures and eventually formation of new cells. Balanced growth means cell components increase in proportion to each other and unbalanced growth means cell components increase in a non constant relationship to each other

Microbial growth and growth curve

Phases of growth

When bacteria are grown in the laboratory in liquid medium, the medium becomes cloudy or turbid. It is possible to measure the increase in numbers of bacteria at various time intervals and plot the values on a graph representing a growth curve.

Lag Phase: When cells are first inoculated into fresh medium containing all the nutrients they require, they take a short time to adapt before they start to divide. This is termed the lag phase.

Sterilization is defined as the process by which an article, surface or medium is freed of all living microorganisms either in the vegetative or spore state.

Disinfection means the destruction or removal of all pathogenic organisms, or organisms capable of giving rise to infection. Chemical disinfectants which can be safely applied to skin or mucous membrane and are used to prevent infection by inhibiting the growth of bacteria are called antiseptics.

Five main methods are used for sterilization. 1. Red heat (flaming) 2. Dry heat (hot air) 3. Moist heat 4. Filtration 5. Radiation.

The killing effect of dry heat is due to protein denaturation, oxidative damage and toxic effect of elevated levels of electrolytes. The lethal effect of moist heat is due to the denaturation and coagulation of protein. In the case of spore, steam condenses on it, increasing its water content with ultimate hydrolysis and breakdown of the bacterial protein.

Physical Methods of Food Preservation

Conditions too stressful for microbial growth can damage cells. Food environments can be manipulated to inhibit or kill microbes. Physical manipulation of foods can inhibit microbial growth, kill cells, or mechanically remove them from the food. Dehydration, refrigeration, and freezing inhibit microbial growth. Microbes can be killed by heating or ultraviolet (UV) or ionizing radiation. Non thermal energy is also lethal. Membrane filtration removes microbes from liquid foods. This chapter discusses all these physical preservation methods

Physical Dehydration Processes

Drying

When foods are being dried, hot air evaporates the water and carries it away. Both the drying temperature and the decreased water activity (a_w) affect the microbes.

During the initial period of drying, the temperature is still low and the relative humidity is high. The size and composition of the food particle determine the length of this phase. If this particle size is large and the material is dense, this phase can be long, allowing microbes to grow. During later phases of drying, the temperature is high but the relative humidity is low. This provides no opportunity for growth but is not very lethal either. The higher temperatures result in lower moisture content, and dry heat is less lethal than wet heat. If the drying lasts long enough (at least 30 min.), there are time-temperature combinations that kill microbial cells. With certain drying methods, the surface temperature may reach 100°C, while internal temperature remains lower. This kills surface microbes, but not those in the food’s interior.

14.1 Introduction

The increasing human population and changing life styles have resulted in a huge demand for processed and packaged foods. As a result of this demand, large amounts of water, air, electricity and fuel are consumed on a daily basis for food processing, transportation and preservation. Although not one of the most heavily polluting, the food industry does contribute to the increase in volume of waste produced [1]. There is an increasing pressure from regulatory bodies through incentives, legislation and financial penalties to minimize waste generation and encourage adoption of eco-friendly options for waste management. Nanotechnology is a panacea for food waste management.

Detailed information on tectonic evolutionary history of the Bay of Bengal is presented followed by elucidation of these characteristics towards tsunamigenesis in this chapter. The Andaman-Nicobar Island Arc (ANIA) is situated on a 1000 km long plate margin and represents a key region in the developing oceanic crustal area of Bay of Bengal. Frequent earthquakes including the tsunamigenic earthquake of 26th December 2004 off the coast of Sunda take place in this region. The subduction of Indian plate under Myanmar-Thailand plate drives formation of chain of Andaman-Nicobar group of Islands. These oceanic crust formation, subduction and arc formation are all seismigenic and generate shallow focus earthquakes in the Bay of Bengal. It is also observed that the seismicity is decreasing as the bathymetry increases towards SW of the Bay of Bengal. Thus, in long term, the slow accumulation of stress as tectonic plates converge may result in many more earthquakes in this region. After a dormancy of over 100 years, the Barren Island volcano renewed its activity following recent earthquakes. The seismic activity along the Andaman-Nicobar trench is continuing with earthquakes of magnitude varying from 4.8 to 7.2 Richter scale. All these observations suggest resurgent and intense tectonic and volcanic activities due to which allied hazards such as tsunami may take place in future.

INTRODUCTION

The evolving Earth, depending on its heat flow pattern in the mantle throughout geological time, had passed through stages, which are diagnosed through characteristic geodynamic signatures. This chapter focuses on a very active region in the crust, namely, the Andaman-Nicobar Island Arc (ANIA) to recognize such signatures and decipher relative safety of surrounding regions including east coast of India. As similar active arc systems such as Sunda Arc & Japan Arc generate volcanic, seismic and tsunami hazards, understanding the ANIA would be of help assess safety of surrounding regions. Abundant geoscientific literature exists on the northern part of the Indian plate, which is undergoing compressive stress since collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates about 55-45my. However, the behavior of remaining part of the Indian plate underneath the Indian Ocean is still sparcely studied. Owing to these reasons, this chapter attempts to fill the gap in our understanding as well as to assess the implications of renewed phases of geohazard occurrences including that of catastrophic earthquake and tsunami of 26^th December 2004.

This chapter introduces the readers about volcanoes and associated features and hazards. Volcanic disasters are like any other geohazards in causing dangerous impacts. However, volcanic explosions are preceded by many surficial expressions that can be detected through satellite imageries, thermal sensors, change in magnetic and gravity anomalies, disappearances of vegetation, sudden appearances of anomalous water vapor, thermal springs and abnormal behavior of animals. Hence, unlike other geohazards, volcanic hazards could be forecast with fairly accurate time limits that may allow evacuation and precautionary safety measures. While avoidance is the best mitigation measure, proper land use planning, provision of scientifically designed damming and diversion methods could save lives and infrastructure from lava flows. Though, atmospheric contamination by volcanic gases, ash cloud and pyroclastic materials could not be thwarted and controlled and thus they could cause havoc.

INTRODUCTION

The term “Volcano” is derived from the name of Roman mythical God of fire “Vulcan”. A volcano is an opening of different shapes, through which, molten rock and gas get ejected either violently or simply flow over earth’s surface. The molten rock and gaseous materials are drawn from deep inside of crust or mantle of the Earth. Repeated ejection of molten materials through vent, fissures or plate margins forms volcanic mountains on earth’s continental or submarine regions.

Volcanism is a threat not only to the lives and infrastructure, but it also drastically alters landscape, impacts atmospheric quality and renders forests, cities and villages and cultivation lands useless. In addition, volcanic eruptions are capable of causing changes in global atmospheric cycles. For example, the eruptions of El Chicho’n in Mexico in 1982, Laki volcano in Iceland and Asama Volcano in Japan in the year 1783 and Krakatau volcano of Japan in the year 1883 have all impacted global climate and atmorpheric dynamics.

This chapter explains how natural disasters are major catastrophic events, which are often aggravated by human intervention, resulting in adverse conditions affecting both natural resources and human habitats. Though drought is as disastrous as any other geohazard, it differs from other geohazards such that it is a ‘creeping phenomenon’, making its onset and end difficult to determine. Only a continuous monitoring of critical parameters ranging from crop failure to joblessness and shifting population, etc, could indicate drought in an area. In this chapter, we demonstrate a GIS based drought forecasting and monitoring model taking Gubbi Taluk of Karnataka as a case study. The approach includes creation of a spatial database of 17 critical parameters and their integration in GIS environment by developing a suitable rating and ranking scheme for the generation of drought severity map. The results have shown that drought could be monitored with the studied parameters and if suitable remedial measures are implemented, their effectiveness could also be monitored with this GIS model.

INTRODUCTION

India is a large country in terms of geographical area, exhibiting greater agro-climatic variation. The country is susceptible to several natural disasters, which are a major constraint to developmental activities. 

reach out their fingers it is gone” - Chinese Philosopher Lao Tzu Tao Te Ching. True to his verses, geohazards are phenomena regulated by the law of natureand it is beyond the human intellect to understand thoroughly and capability to conquer. This is the lesson learnt by us from so many incidences that geohazards cause greatest havoc wherein natural processes are going on and are inhabited by humans. Greed for natural resources and population pressures on the earth’s resources are the causes of many a catastrophic event. Examples in this regard are galore including, damning river courses and location of urban centers along rivers and coasts – flooding, cyclonic storms, tsunami hazards; alteration and deforestation hill slopes for agricultural and construction activities – landslides; unscrupulous utilization of ground water resources – drought, etc. This chapter is an attempt to draw the attention of human communityasa whole toturn towards learning to live with the nature without alterning the natural processes to get rid of impacts of geohazards as a best ever mitigation measure. In other words, this chapter attempts to emphasize the need to change our attitude to escape from natural hazards instead of attempting to tinker around natural processes only to get battered at the end.

INTRODUCTION

Oxford English dictionary states that the word ‘disaster’ is derived from the 16^th century French word ‘disastre’, which is a combination of two terms namely, ‘Des’ meaning bad or evil and ‘astre’ means star. Thus “desastre” signifies a ‘bad star’ or ‘evil star’. Disaster, therefore, implies loss or damage occurring due to some unfavorable star. However, in terms of modern knowledge, the word ‘disaster’ denotes any odd event, whether natural or man made, which can bring about sudden and great miseries to humanity in the form of loss of life or/ and property.

7.1 Introduction

The earth's crust is made up of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Each variety of rocks exhibit some columnar joints in Igneous rock, characteristic structures like bedding in sedimentary rocks and fabrics like schistosity and gneissosity in metamorphic rocks.

As a result of tectonic activities in nature, rocks may suffer deformation, rupture, dislocation of beds (Fault) or other planar structures.. The whole study of such deformation is known as structural Geology. It has been observed that sedimentary rocks are most suitable for studying structures, because these rocks are deposited in quiet environment, and initially the beds arranged in horizontal position. As a result of stress due to kinematic movements/tectonism, the horizontal beds tend to deviate from their horizontal disposition to dipping position or get folded or faulted. Thus the rock develops various kinds of structures. There are following structures present in sedimentary rocks:

Abstract

Visualisation of geological process raises special issues for scientists and animators. The degree of physical movement of a rising arch or along a fault line may be very small compared to the normal terrain variation. Over a long time period the major changes in the environment may come from the more substantial surface manifestations of changing draining regimes. In Tamil Nadu State in South-Eastern India there are continuing tectonic movements arising from the collision of the subcontinent with the greater Asian land mass. Over comparatively recent times (7000 years) these movements have had a major impact on drainage and other hydrological outcomes. The Cauvery River in particular has migrated several hundred kilometers over this period. A mosaic was made from recent satellite imagery and then manipulated to create surface textures for dates between -7000 years and +1000 years. Changes in the terrain surface, such as rising arch structures and descending grabens, have been modelled and animated. The combination of terrain movement and surface change provides a visual history of the period.

Introduction

The continued northward movement (5±6 mm per year) of the subcontinental land mass of India induces substantial tectonic pressures all over India. In the southeast, primarily within Tamil Nadu, there is significant differential movement, both vertical and horizontal, of portions of the existing land mass. This is producing a number of effects:

Abstract

Indian Peninsular shield has been thought as tectonically inert and aseismic for many years by the Geoscientists. But, subsequent to the disastrous earthquakes in Killari, Jabalpur and Kutch, studies have been initiated in multiple directions on various aspects of seismicities. The present study is aimed at bringing out a possible picture on the seismic vulnerability of parts of Westernghats of Tamil Nadu using various tectano geomorphic anomalies like unifrequency lineaments and different levels of dissection of plateaus, denudational geomorphic anomalies like anomalous talus materials and fluvial geomorphic anomalies like radial drainages, compressed meanders, eyed drainages and wider flood plains interpreted from the raw and digitally processed Landsat TM and IRS P6 LISS-III satellite datasets. The subsequent generation of individual GIS layers on these anomalies and their integration revealed that the N-S faults are tectonically active and the NE-SW and NNE-SSW faults are active faults. Many earthquake epicenters were also found to fall along these lineaments / faults.

Introduction

The Indian peninsular shield, exposing the Archaeozoie - Proterozoic piles of rocks, is known for its tectonic inertness and the related land stability. Owing to such shield area character, the geoscientists were also having strong convictions for a long time that seismically the area is safe.

Macroeconomic policy : Top-down policy by government and central banks, usually intended to maximise growth while keeping down inflation and unempoyment. The main instruments of macroeconomic policy are changes in the rate of interest and money supply, known as monetary policy, and changes in taxation and public spending, known as fiscal policy. The fact that unemployment and inflation often rise sharply, and that growth often slows or gdp falls, may be evidence of poorly executed macroeconomic policy. However, business cycles may simply be an unavoidable fact of economic life that macroeconomic policy, however well conducted, can never be sure of conquering.

Macroeconomics : The big picture analysing economy-wide phenomena such as growth, inflation and unemployment. Contrast with microeconomics, the study of the behaviour of individual markets, workers, households and firms. Although economists generally separate themselves into distinct macro and micro camps, macroeconomic phenomena are the product of all the microeconomic activity in an economy. The precise relationship between macro and micro is not particularly well understood, which has often made it difficult for a government to deliver well-run macroeconomic policy.

Managed Care : Managed care is a livestock health care plan that integrates the financing and delivery of livestock health care services by using arrangements with selected health care providers to provide services for covered individuals. Plans are generally financed using capitation fees. There are significant financial incentives for members of the plan to use the health care providers associated with the plan. The plan includes formal programs for quality assurance and utilization review.

Pandemic : An epidemic occurring over a very wide area (several countries or continents) and usually affecting a large proportion of the population.

Partial Evaluation : Partial evaluations constitute a number of economic study types which consider costs and/or consequences, but which either do not involve a comparison between alternative interventions or do not relate costs to benefits.

Participation bias : People who participate in a study, especially volunteers, may be systematically different from those who do not, in a way that can affect the response to a treatment. For example, if volunteers are chosen to test the effects of a vaccine, one might find a lower incidence of disease in this population simply because they are more health conscious than those who would not volunteer for such a study.

Path dependence : History matters. Where you have been in the past determines where you are now and where you can go in future. Indeed, even small, apparently trivial, differences in the path you have taken can have huge consequences for where you are and can go. In economics, path dependence refers to the way in which apparently insignificant events and choices can have huge consequences for the development of a market or an economy.

Goat anatomy

Understanding of the basic structure and functioning of goats is required to maintain the health and productivity of goats. Anatomy deals with the form and structure of the animal whereas physiology deals with the mechanism of body functions.

The skeleton of goat is made up of the vertebral column, ribs and skull, the limbs, and the joints. There are 7 neck (cervical) vertebrae, 13 chest (thoracic) vertebrae, 6 or 7 lumbar vertebrae, 4 pelvic (sacral) vertebrae and between 4 and 8 tail (coccygeal) vertebrae.The ribs are elongated, curved bones that form the ribcage, which is the skeleton of the thoracic cavity (chest). There are 13 pairs of ribs attached to each side of the thoracic vertebrae. Most of them are fixed i.e. they are joined to the sternum (breastbone) at the front of the chest but the last two pairs are not attached at the front and are called floating ribs.The skull includes all the bones of the head. It consists of a number of flat bones that form immovable joints, most of which disappear with age; and a lower jaw bone (mandible), which forms movable joints with the other parts of the skull.The limbs include forelegs (thoracic limbs) and hindlegs (pelvic limbs). The forelegs consist of shoulder,forearm and a lower limb made up of carpus,metacarpus and phalanges. The hind legs consist of pelvic girdle, thigh, and a lower limb made up of tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges.

The joints are where two or more bones of cartilages meet. There are two main kinds of joints.Fixed or immovable joints have no joint cavity and are united by fibrous tissue or cartilage. Many of these are temporary joints which become fixed as calcium accumulates in the flexible tissues and turns to bone (calcifies) with age. Examples are the joints in theskull, the joints of ribs to vertebrae, and the pelvic and mandibular symphyses (midline joints).Movable joints have a joint cavity surrounded by ajoint capsule. There are two opposing bone surfaces,which have smooth surfaces of very dense bone.

Movable joints have cartilages between the bones to reduce friction and absorb concussion. The inner lining of the joint capsule is the synovial layer, which produces synovial fluid (joint fluid). Examples include joints of the limbs, such as the shoulder and the hip, and the joint between the skull and the vertebral column.

Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, liver, brain, bone marrow, kidney, or lung. Meat is a nutrient dense food. Meat contains protein, fat, enzymes, vitamins and minerals for proper human nutrition. Goats are important producer of meat besides milk, fiber and skin. Goat meat is lower in calories, total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol, than traditional meats.Goat have number of characteristics , such as high reproductive potential , short generation interval , ability to thrive on shrubs, bushes and tree leaves, high digestive efficiency for cellulose and less susceptibility to infectious diseases, that make them suitable as meat producing livestock. Since these animals are more concentrated in the developing part of the world, they play a major role in subsistence agriculture of developing economies of poor and marginal farmers inhabiting such countries. More than 95 % of goats are concentrated in dry tropical and subtropical areas of poor agricultural potential and even on marginal lands of the world (Morand Fehr and Boyazoglu, 1999). Goat has several other advantages as producer of meat which make it predominant and preferred animal for meat production. Often because of the above mentioned reason, goat meat is sold two to three times costlier as compared to pork in India. Beef is unavailable in India with the exception of Kerala and West Bengal. Goat meat has an edge over mutton too, as the number of goats slaughtered for meat purposes (40%) far exceeds the number of sheep slaughtered for similar purposes. The slaughter rate of goat is at the level of 39.7 % as compared to 31.8% for sheep and 11% for buffaloes, respectively. Sheep and goat meat are both called “mutton” in India. Goats convert the poor quality roughage, browse tree leaves, which would have otherwise gone waste, into valuable source of protein in several desert or hostile areas of the world where other classes of livestock like cattle and buffalo will starve to death. Goat meat production and consumption has an important place in the economy of Asian and African countries. Goats have been recognized as an important source of meat in the rural areas of these countries. Commercial meat-goat enterprises account for majority of the meat-goat production systems and herd sizes range from five to several thousand does. Prolificacy, milk production and pre-weaning growth are important in achieving good productivity of commercial meat production enterprises.

Present day hydrogeomorphological research is the explanation of landscape and landforms: what they are, how they function and have developed with reference to the hydrological conditions. Research is a much more complex undertaking than giving names to landforms or even the study of processes, both in terms of what we mean by process and how explanations are approached. It is worthwhile examining some reasons for this, as it shows the increasing complexity of the subject and lead to ideas of how hydrogeomorphology can be studied. Here are some of the fundamentals required for hydrogeomorphological studies:

Mechanism and Processes

‘Mechanism’ provides explanations in detail by describing physical or chemical effects. ‘Process’ signifies the integration of mechanisms in time. Thus, for example when we talk about ‘fluvial process’ or, more specifically, about the ‘mechanism of saltation’, then we have to discuss about the energy source and processes of carrying the material. A process can thus be viewed as the simultaneous operation of a set of specific mechanisms over a specific time period.

DISEASES OF RABBITS

The Disease Occurrence in rabbit colony is minimal if good sanitation and hygiene measures are followed.

Diseases are caused by Bacteria, Viral, Parasitic and managemental.

Bacterial Disease

Pasteurellosis → similar to Haemorrahgic septicaemia

Organism → Pasterurella multocida

Affects respiratory system with difficulty in breathing. Temperature 103 ° F Occulonasal discharge observed.

Lab → Blood smear shows bipolar organisms by Giemsa stain.

Treatment → Sulpha drugs, long acting tetracyclines.

RECORD KEEPING

Objectives

• To carry out the routine activities of animal house
• Breeding of animals

Materials required- Different types of record

Proper record keeping is very important and it is also highly essential to carry out the animal house activity in a systematic manner. The records should be simple, complete and should preferably be computer compatible.

The records are kept and maintained in different forms. Unnecessary information should be avoided in these records. The records of breeding, experimental animal and morality of animals are highly essential. Other records are:

Quantitative Traits

• Quantitative traits exhibit a continuum of phenotypic variation that may follow a normal distribution
• Statistical methods are used to evaluate a frequency distribution quantitatively
• Some statistical methods compare two variables with each other

Polygenic Inheritance

Polygenic inheritance and environmental factors create overlaps between genotypes and phenotypes

Polygenic inheritance explains DDT-resistance in Drosophila

Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) are now mapped by linkage to molecular markers

Introduction

Hybrid is the first generation cross-produced through crossing between two genetically different plants, lines or varieties. The seeds produced in this way are called hybrid vigour, which serves as a key for increasing the yield of many self, and cross-fertilized crops. With limited possibilities of horizontal expansion in area and to meet the ever-increasing demand of quality vegetables by growing populations, the exploitation of hybrid vigour is best option for increasing both productivity and quality. Vegetable hybrids under optimum crop production and protection management produce economically more yield than improved, open-pollinated varieties. The uniform size, early maturity, improved nutritional quality, adaptability to adverse environments and resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, are additional advantages of hybrids resulting in better monetary returns to growers. Development of hybrids in vegetables brought about a near revolution but still India has not been able to harvest full potential of hybrid technology as compared to USA, Japan, Canada, Europe and Israel. About 10-12% of the total vegetable area is under hybrids in India as against 75-90% in Japan or USA. In India, only tomato and cabbage are leading vegetable crops, occupying 30-35% area under hybrids while rest of the vegetables cover less than 15%. The hybrid seed production and their cultivation, therefore, should be popularized on warfooting to achieve the targets. Many hybrids have been developed both by public and private organizations as given in Chapters 6 of Table 6, which are competing among themselves to produce best hybrids to compete in world market and selling seeds on very high rates ranging from Rs 5,000 to 50,000/ kg of seed. Though, they are making very huge profits but their contribution in promotion of hybrid technology is exemplary and cannot be overlooked.

8.1 Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to develop a smart control for site-specific management of fixed irrigation system with Blynk app. Mobile app is designed to control the water management in field. The complete system comprises of two sections field device and mobile app. Field device comprises of Arduino, Node MCU, Power supply, LCD, Relay board, soil moisture sensor, temperature & humidity sensor, water level sensor, motor1, motor2. The system is designed to establish control and communication with specific agricultural field to take sensory data from the sensors and control the PUMP IN motor and PUMP OUT motor with the help of mobile app. Fig.8.1 shows a block diagram for a system.

9.1 Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to design an icloud and cayenne based perimeter monitoring system for agricultural field. Mobile app is designed to monitor the sensory data. The complete system comprises of two sections field device and mobile app. Field device comprises of NodeMCU, battery, motion sensors and laser sensors. The system is designed to monitor the agriculture field perimeter with motion and laser sensors, which are deployed at different locations of field. The sensory data is transmitted through NodeMCU and received at mobile app which can be accessed by authorized person. The same data can be accessed on webserver from anywhere in the world. Fig.9.1 shows a block diagram for a system. Table.9.1 shows the component list.

1. Mendel presented his results in the form of

   a) Two paper in French langua

   b) Two paper in German language

   c) One paper in German language

   d) None of the above

2. The alternative forms of a gene are called

   a) Allelomorph

   b) Gene

   c) Alleles

   d) None of these

1. ______ an application of the accounting principles to the business of farming.

   a) Farm planning

   b) Farm budgeting

   c) Farm accounting

   d) Marketing

2. ‘Beef’ and ‘hides’ are examples of:

   a) Independent enterprise

   b) Joint enterprise

   c) Supplementary enterprise

   d) Compitative enterprise

CONCEPT

The word “epidemic” is derived from the greek word, epi= (on) and demons=(people) and in true sense applies to those disease of human being which appear very virulently among a large section of population. To carry the same sense in the case of plant diseases the term epiphytotic has been coined. an epiphytotic disease is one which occur widely but periodically. it may be present constantly in a locality but assumes severe form only on occasions. Of late, the term “epidemiology” has come to have a broad meaning within plant pathology. The term has been variously defined as the study of disease in populations; the study of environmental factors that influence the amount and distribution of diseases in population, and the study of either increase or decrease in the amount of disease in time, in space, or both.

Elements of An Epidemic

Generally, the elements of an epidemic are referred to as the “disease triangle”: a susceptible host, pathogen, and favorable environment. For disease to occur all three of these must be present. Where all three items get together there is disease. As long as all three of these elements are present disease can commence, an epidemic will only arise if all three continue to be present. Sometimes a fourth factor of time is added as the time at which a particular infection occurs, and the length of time conditions remain viable for that infection, can also play an important role in epidemics If all of the criteria are not met, such as a susceptible host and pathogen are present but the environment is not conducive to the pathogen infecting and causing disease, disease cannot occur.

Factors that affect the development of epidemics

The over emphasis on the use of chemical pesticides and their improper use by the farmers has led to several complications such as residue in food, feed, fodder, development of resistance, resurgence, secondary outbreak, etc. and above all, environmental pollution, leading to a condition known as Pesticide Treadmill characterized by the need to spray ever greater quantities of chemical pesticides. In 1962, Rachel Carson in her book ‘Silent Spring’ aroused worldwide concern about the excessive use of pesticides, which eventually led to the concept of Integrated Pest/Disease Management as an environmentally sound alternative to the sole use of chemicals.

The IDM Concept

In disease management, all the alternate control measures like cultural, biological, mechanical, resistant varieties, physical etc, are utilized in anintegrated manner in order to maintain the disease below economic injury level. If the disease increases and reaches the economic threshold level, pesticides are used to bring the disease down. This is concept of an Integrated Disease Management in which minimum pesticides are used keeping in view of agro- ecosystem. Actually, we do not go for 100 percent control in disease management rather the disease is allowed below which can be tolerated i.e economic threshold. This also provides opportunity for bioagent to survive, managing upon the diseases keeping them at certain equilibrium level. Thus, the Integrated Disease Management concept aims at managing the disease through all the available tactics with favorable economic, social and ecological consequences.

6.1. PLANT WATER AND MINERAL NUTRITION

Plant water

Water form the major constituent of living (cells) things and the cells originated in a highly aqueous medium and all the vital processes of the life are carried out in it. Besides, water predominately acts as a source of hydrogen to plants and is released by the photolys is of water during photosynthesis.

In living tissue, water is the medium for many biochemical reactions and extraction process. Inorganic nutrients, photosynthesis, bases and hormones are all transported in aqueous solution. Soil nutrients are available to plant roots only when it get dissolved in water. It is essential for life and plays a unique role in virtually all biological process.

Water absorption

Plants absorbed water through root hairs which are in contact with soil water and form a root hair zone a little behind the root tips.Root hairs are tubular hair like prolongations of the cells of the epidermal layer of the roots. When roots elongate, the older root hairs die and new root hairs are developed so that they are in contact with fresh supplies of water in the soil.

Mechanism of water absorption

1. Active absorption of water : In this process the root cells play active role in the absorption of water and metabolic energy released through respiration is consumed active absorption may be of two kinds.

Abstract

The aim is to review the potential health benefits of minor millet. There is in need to identify newer sources of nutraceuticals and other natural and nutritional materials with the desirable functional characteristics. They are an important staple food in India for people of low income groups. Minor millet is rich in several nutrients as well as non-nutrients such as phenols. Nutritionally, its importance is well recognised because of its high content of calcium (0.38%), dietary fiber (18%) and phenolic compounds (0.3-3%). Minor millets, one of the cereals are known for several health benefits including its polyphenol and dietary fiber contents. Health beneficial effects include anti-diabetic, anti-tumerogenic, atherosclerogenic effects, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The energy of minor millets is greater than other cereals and nearly equal to that of brown rice because the lipid content is generally higher (3 to 6%). This review deals with the nature of polyphenols and dietary fiber of minor millets and their role with respect to the health benefits associated with millet.