eChapters

Introduction 
The world is reaching a crucial moment in the energy sector as the third decade of the twenty-first century unfolds (Azarpour et al., 2022). Concern over the prospects of our energy supplies has increased globally because of the key priorities posed by climate change and the necessity for economic stability and energy security. The transition to energy from renewable sources is widely viewed as a crucial component in transforming our relationship with nature, the economy, and cultural values (O'Connor and Cleveland, 2014; Hassan et al., 2024). Reducing the usage of fossil fuels in our energy supply systems is known as an energy transition (Cherp, Jewell and Goldthau, 2011). Fossil fuels, such as crude oil, and natural gas, supply a substantial share of the world's energy. Interest in energy transitions has grown because, in addition to the fact that most fossilfuel resources are reserve-based, burning the vast amounts of fossil fuels that are currently available, and the resulting environmental effects are the main drivers of energy transitions (Crow, Brown and De Young, 2006). Bioenergy refers to renewable energy produced from materials derived from biological sources. Any organic substance such as plants, agricultural or forestry residues, or the organic portion of industrial and municipal trash that stores solar energy as chemical energy is considered a biomass feedstock. The first energy source that humans employed was biomass, which could supply roughly onefourth of the world's primary energy, or 138 EJ (exajoules) (calculated by averaging estimated numbers from five reports) (Welfle, 2017). Because of its versatility in producing various forms of energy and chemicals, bioenergy is a desirable energy choice for all stages of development. It has a great potential for integration with current infrastructures, may produce energy that may be dispatched to balance changing demands, and most importantly provides energy with lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuel pathways, unlike many other renewable energy sources (Demirbas, 2008). It is anticipated that sustainable renewable energy sources, including biomass, sun (heat energy and PV (photovoltaic)), wind, hydroelectricity, geothermal, and wave and tidal energy sources, are expected to play a vital role in the future global energy supply (Panwar, Kaushik and Kothari, 2011). Compared to other sources of sustainable and clean energy, biological feedstock offers the advantage of being able to be stored and being easily accessible year-round from a variety of sources. Estimates suggest that biomass contributed 10% of the global energy demand in 2008 (Main-Knorn et al., 2013), with further advancements expected to increase this contribution by two to six times by 2050 (Zema et al., 2012). It is believed that biomass is a distinctive and promising form of "green" energy. It is abundantly found in nature and can be easily produced in most rural environments (Broda, Yelle and Serwanska, 2022). Biomass sources are generally classified into two categories: inherent and processed materials, the most common forms of sources comprise, wood, logging wastes, animal dung, aquatic plants and algae, agricultural crop waste products and processing residues, and municipal solid waste. Additionally, three categories have been established for biomass resources. Wastes include agricultural remnants, agricultural processing by-products and wastes, urban wood debris, urban organic materials, and wastes from mills. Forest goods include bark, sawdust, logging leftovers, timber, trees, plants, and wood debris from land clearing. Bioenergy crops encompass grasses, fast-growing woody plants, woody herbaceous plants, oilseed plants (soybean, sunflower, and safflower), sugar crops (cane and beet), and starch plants (corn, wheat, and barley) (Qian, Malmali and Wickramasinghe, 2016). Growers favour energy plants, sometimes referred to as

Cellulosic ethanol refers to the production of ethanol, an alcohol fuel, from cellulose found in plant fibers rather than from seeds or fruits. This biofuel can be derived from various sources such as grasses, wood, and other plants. The fibrous components of these plants are mostly from crop residues and other sources indigestible for animals, except for ruminants like cows and sheep, as well as hindgut fermenters like horses, rabbits, and rhinos. The interest in cellulosic ethanol stems from its potential economic value. Plant growth and cellulose formation serve as a mechanism to capture and store solar energy in a chemically stable manner, facilitating easy transport and storage of the resulting supplies. Moreover, the ability of grasses and trees to grow in temperate regions makes cellulosic ethanol commercially viable and offers a potential solution from non-food sources other than grain and tuber starch. This cellulosic ethanol development in the biofuel industry presents an opportunity to derive carbonaceous liquid fuels and petrochemicals, which are vital for our current standard of living, in a balanced and renewable manner by recycling carbon from the surface and atmosphere through any kind of plant orgin or any plant or tree species, Additionally, commercially viable cellulosic ethanol could mitigate the issue associated with conventional biofuels based on grains, which compete with food production and may lead to increased food prices. However, the production of cellulosic ethanol is currently economically feasible and has been implemented on a large scale in India. Several 2G ethanol plants are being developed by companies like Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL). Different types of biomass contain varying amounts of sugars, and the complexity of the biomass is determined by the structural and carbohydrate components. Plant biomass mainly consists of lignin (13.6-28.1%), cellulose (40.6-51.2%) and hemicellulose (28.5-37.2%), which serve as the raw materials for fuel production. The conversion of biomass into sugars is a crucial step in biofuel production. Therefore, selecting an appropriate pretreatment process based on the biomass type is essential to achieve optimal sugar yield with minimal energy input.

Celosia is an attractive flowering crop valued for its distinctive inflorescences, bright colours and use as loose and ornamental flowers. The crop includes forms such as Cristata, Plumosa and Spicata, with the characteristic brain-like appearance of cockscomb resulting from fasciation. This chapter deals with the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical features and important varieties of Celosia. It explains climatic and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation and cultural practices for commercial production. The chapter also covers plant growth regulation, insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield. Its practical approach makes it relevant to students, growers and floriculture entrepreneurs.

Scientific name: Centella asiatica (L) Urban
Fmily: Apiaceae
The plant Centella asiatica belongs to the family Apiaceae. C. asiatica widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Commonly known as Gotu Kola, Indian pennywort or Asiatic pennywort. It has a long history of utilization in Chinese and Ayurvedic traditional medicines since centuries. Leaves are yellowish-green color, thin and edible. The plant
grows horizontally through its stolones which roots in underground. C. asiatica shows a wide range of biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, wound healing, anti-psoriatic, anti-convulsant, hepato protective, immuno-stimulant, anti-diabetic, sedative, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, antitumor, cardio protective and anti-oxidant activities.
Origin and distribution
C. asiatica widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world. C. asiatica is widely found in Sree Lanka, India, Indonesi, Malaeysia and China. It is especially common in the Indian sub continent. It is also present in Eastern and Northern parts of Australia. It may also found in Tropical parts of Africa and Madagascar. C. asiatica has been introduced and is now cultivated or found in Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, The Philippines, Myanmar, and Brazil. Beyond Madagascar it is found in parts of Southern and Central Africa. The plant grows in countries such as Hawaii and Fiji. It is also found in Southern states like Florida.

Centre of origin are also known as centre of diversity. N. I. Vavilov in 1926 has proposed that crop plants evolved from wild species in the areas showing diversity and termed them as primary centers of origin. Primary centers, crops moved to other areas with the movements of man. But in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although they did not originate there. Such areas are known as secondary centers of origin of these species. Genetic diversity is essential for crop improvement. Vavilov has suggested eight main centers of origin of crop plants.

1. Chinese Centre

This centre is considered to be one of the earliest and largest independent center of origin of cultivated plants. This centre includes mountain regions of central and western China. The endemic species listed from this centre include, soya bean, radish, turnip, pear, peach, plum, colocasia, buckwheat, opium poppy, brinjal, apricots, oranges, china tea etc.

2. Himalayan Centre

This centre is also known as the Indian centre of origin. This centre includes regions of Assam, Burma, Indo-china and Malayan Archipelago. The crops originated from this centre are rice, red gram, chick pea, pea, mung, brinjal, cucumber, sugar cane, black pepper, moth bean, rice bean, cotton, turmeric, indigo, millets etc.

Centesis is a surgical puncture or perforation into body cavity or structure usually done to aspirate fluid, air or tissue. The medical purpose of puncturing body cavities is not only to obtain fluid sample for diagnostic purpose but also to remove excessive fluid for therapeutic purpose for alleviating the respiratory distress owing to excessive fluid accumulation in peritoneal cavity, pleural cavity or pericardial sac. This procedure is usually done to get fluid from abdominal cavity, thoracic cavity, pericardial sac or joint capsule and is aptly known as abdominocentesis, thoracentesis, pericardiocentesis or arthrocentesis respectively.

Brain

The brain, a command centre of the body, is a complex organ. The substance of the brain is made of the grey matter and the white matter. The grey matter is often identified as cerebral cortex but other parts of the brain also contain the grey matter. Inside the brain, the grey matter is organized into large accumulations of neurons which are called the nuclei of the brain. Each nucleus is associated with a specific function. In addition to neurons, there is other type of cells the glial cells called neuroglia. The neurons are responsible for sending and receiving impulses or signals. The glial cells are nonneuronal and provide support and nutrition to neuronal cells, form myelin and facilitate signal transmission in the nervous system. The white matter is made of millions of nerve fibres that are coming from neurons and are going to establish communications with different parts of the brain and spinal cord. Since these nerve fibres are coated with myelin sheath around them these appear white and the area occupied by these nerve fibres become the white matter of the brain.

The brain has three basic components, the forebrain, midbrain and the hindbrain.

Fore brain: The forebrain (Prosencephalon) is the rostral portion of the brain. It consists of cerebrum (Telencephalon) and the thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal gland together constituting the interbrain (Diencephalon).

Mid brain: The midbrain (Mesencephalon) is the middle portion of the brain. It is in the centre lying between the interbrain and hindbrain. It consists of a cranial part of brain stem.

Hind brain: The hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) is the caudal most portion of the brain. It consists of remaining (caudal) part of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata (Myelencephalon) and the cerebellum and pons (Metencephalon).

The place of origin of the crop plant can be found out on the basis of genetic affinities. This would mean to find out the geographical distribution of the wild progenitors of the cultivated plants. If one can locate the distribution of a given progenitor, one can delimit the area in which domestication could have occurred. Vavilov based his judgment on variation patterns in cultivated plants. Information on wild plants in those days was much more fragmentary than what it is today. Even today, genetic and ecological information on wild relatives of several cultivated plants is incomplete and in such cases assessment of a place of origin is difficult to make. However, in most cases required information is available on genetic affinities between wild and tame, on distribution areas and on ecological affinities of the wild progenitors. On this basis it is possible to determine the initial place of origin.

Since historical times, Indian spices have been contributed not only to the country’s wealth and prosperity but also to the subcontinent itself as a whole. Spices precisely witnessed many wars, bloodshed, armoury alongwith the glowing accounts and adventurous voyage by Pliny, Ptolemy, Marco Polo, Vasco da Gamma and other travelers. The Southern parts of India, especially the Malabar Coast, with its abundance of the World’s best pepper, cinnamon and ginger was enormously creating impact of a plethora of spices which attracted the foreign trade and continue even today by creating a unique brand value globally. In the past, invaders travelled to India by overcoming many odds and barriers with the prime focus on capturing spice trade and dominating the trade scenario of those days throughout the world. As a result, gradually Indian spices travelled far and wide to traditional destinations by providing flavor, aroma, pungency, taste and colour to a variety of foods and beverages.

It was the end of 18^th century, from when scientific research began on the idea of origin of cultivated plants. The pioneers of this field were Darwin, Alphonse de Candolle, N.I Vavilov and many more. Charles Darwin wrote his famous book ‘On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection’, or the ‘Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life’ published on 24^th November 1859. According to him, cultivated plants may have originated from its wild form after a series of intense modifications. Afterwards, a Swiss botanist Alphonse de Candolle studied 247 cultivated plant species and documented his work in the book “Origin of cultivated plants” in 1886. Later, Vavilov first identified the Centres of origin. He could determine the origin of plants by analyzing the pattern of variation and proposed that, crop plants have been evolved from their wild species in the geographic region of the greatest genetic diversity of that particular plant. That area is known as the primary centres of origin of the particular plant. But, some crop species were found to show substantial genetic diversity even though they did not originate there. Such areas are known as secondary centres of origin for that particular species.

Crop Domestication

Domestication can be loosely defined as the process of bringing of a wild species under the management of man. Domestication is the process by which genetic changes (or shifts) in wild plants are brought about through a selection process imposed by humans. Because of the role of humans, the process results in characteristics that are beneficial to humans but some that would be disadvantageous for plants in their natural habitats. It is an evolutionary process in which selection (both natural (frost tolerance) and artificial (large attractive fruits)) operates to change plants genetically, morphologically, and physiologically. 

When a particle revolves around an axis, a force is developed and acts away from the axis of rotation. This force is called centrifugal force. A particle suspended in a medium takes some time to sediment, which depends upon the size, molecular weight, and viscosity or density of the medium under normal “g” (gravity). To speed up the process of sedimentation, the external field of force is allowed to act on the particle which depends also on the distance of the particle from the axis of rotation in addition to the other factors.

Centrifugation is a technique that promotes accelerated settling of particles in a solid-liquid mixture by the application of centrifugal force. The device that accelerates the separation with the help of centrifugal force is known as ‘Centrifuge’. The centrifuge consists of a fixed base or frame and a rotating part in which the mixture is placed and is then spun at high speed.

Introduction

Out of the total cultivated area of 142 million hectares (M ha) in India during 2011–12, 100.2 M ha was under cereals (the word cereal derives from Ceres, the name of the Roman goddess of harvest and agriculture) and 24.8 M ha under pulses (splitting seed), the staple food grains in the country (Economic Survey 2013). There is very little scope of bringing additional area under food grains; on the contrary this may decline in future due to the land needed for civil amenities and industrial purposes.

Introduction

Cereals are grown over 73% of the total world harvested area and contribute over 60% to the world food production providing dietary fibre, proteins, energy, minerals and vitamins required for human health. Cereals like rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, and oats are chiefly used in the preparation of traditional fermented foods and beverages. However, the nutritional quality of cereals and the sensory properties of their products are sometimes inferior in comparison with dairy products. The reasons behind this the lower protein content, deficiency of certain essential amino acids, the presence of determined anti-nutrients (phytic acid, tanins and polyphenols) and the coarse nature.

Introduction

The cereal cyst nematode, (Heterodera avenae Woll.) a causal organism of ‘molya’ disease in wheat and barley, since after its first report (by Wollenweber, 1924, Vasudeva, 1958 and Prasad et al., 1959), it has been timely reviewed about its spread and losses caused in the various parts of wheat and barley growing areas of the world. It has been reported to occur in Australia, Canada, Israel, South Africa, Japan, in most of the European countries, North America, India, Morocco, Tunisia, Pakistan, Libya, Turkey and Australia (Prasad et al., 1959, Smiley et al., 1994, Rumpen horst et al.,1996, Krall et al., 1999, Nicol, 2002 and Rao et al., 2002). Its economic importance has been assessed by mapping the yield losses caused in cereals i.e. ranged from 15-20% in Pakistan, 40-92% in Sauthi Arabia, 23-50% in Australia (Nicol, 2002) and 40-50% in India (Mathur 1969, Mathur et al., 1980, Handa et al., 1985, Mathur, et al., 1987).

SYNOPSIS

Nature produces plants with healing properties. Hundreds of phytochemicals and antioxidants have been identified in various food plants. Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are several plant species which are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plant’s initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as Omega fats. In fact, the majority of foods consumed by human beings are seed-based foods.

Abstract

The frictional properties such as coefficient of friction and angle of repose are very important in designing of storage bins, hoppers, chutes, conveyors, harvesters and threshers etc. Angle of repose is the angle made with the horizontal at which the material will stand when piled. The angle of repose is also important in designing the equipment for mass flow and structures for storage. The static angle of repose (b) was determined using an open-ended cylinder of 150 mm diameter and 250 mm height. The higher the moisture content, the higher the cohesion between the seeds. In terms of flow ability, the seeds are heavier and the inertia to move is increased. Coefficient of internal friction is the frictional resistance of seeds with each other. Coefficient of external friction is the frictional resistance between the seeds and the surface. The rolling resistance is directly proportional to the weight of the rolling object and to the coefficient of rolling resistance which is dependent on the rigidity of the supporting surface and indirectly proportional to the effective radius of the rolling object. The air velocity at which an object remains in a suspended state in a vertical pipe under the action of the air current is called terminal velocity of the object.

Cereal Processing

    1.    The protein content of wheat grain varies widely, but for bread making a value of at least 11% is required.

    2.    Low grain sulphur will result in low concentrations of the sulphur-containing amino acids, cystine and methionine, and may result in poor loaf volume.

    3.    During seed germination endosperm starch is converted into soluble glucose and maltose to support the developing embryo. This is brought about by enzymatic activity, especially the enzyme a-amylase.

    4.    Excessive a-amylase levels result in the formation of a darkened loaf crust as a result of sugar caramelization and a sticky crumb structure which can cause problems during slicing.

    5.    Wheat with a protein level below 10% is preferred to reduce gluten elasticity.

    6.    There is a very good correlation between grain nitrogen and the amount of malt extract achieved, low grain nitrogen giving more fermentable extract

    7.    The term ‘coarse grains milling’ is a very broad one that refers to the comminution of the berries of the wheat, barley and other coarse grain crops.

1. Introduction

The development of food products using composite flour has increased and is attracting much attention from researchers, especially in the production of bakery products and pastries. This article focuses on the use of composite flour to produce food products, namely bread, biscuits, and pasta, with looks at on its impact, following some improvements made, on the sensory quality, rheology characteristics, and nutritional values as well as its overall acceptance. The blending of wheat flour with various sources of tubers, legumes, cereals and fruit flour in different percentages to produce variety of food products are also reported. The positive effects of the use of composite flour can be seen in the final product related to the functional and physicochemical properties and health benefits of raw blended flour along with percentage blending. Overall, composite flour is a good new approach to utilizing uncommon food products as the application of composite flour produced products with different characteristics and quality, depending on the types and percentage of wheat flour used in the formulation.

Bread has been the staple food worldwide and habit of bread is derived in part due to the convenience and wholesomeness. Wheat is a commonly used cereal for making bread as it gives the desired texture due to the presence of gluten forming proteins like gliadins and glutenins (Decock & Cappelle, 2005). In earlier times idea of composite flour in developing countries originated in order to cut down on import of wheat (as it was not grown in many countries) but in recent past refined wheat flour consumption has lead to health issues and thus in order to improve nutritional and functional properties composite flour has been the norm. Composite flour is the one obtained by mixing wheat flour with cereal and legume flours for making bread and biscuits (Dendy, 1992). However, mixing of non-wheat flours, roots and tubers, legumes or other raw materials can also be regarded as composite flour.