eChapters

Abstract

The traditional forage production systems and grazing lands are under extreme pressure due to the population growth of both human and livestock, decreasing area and inputs. In the central India, especially the Bundelkhand region, the soil is highly weathered, degraded and have low inherent nutrient, which was further worsened due to use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, for enhancing crop production to meet the escalating demand of the population.

Introduction 
Natural product scaffolds and heterocyclic ring-based organic compounds are crucial for developing bioactive substances and therapeutic drugs, serving as essential structural units for bioactive molecules and pharmacophores. Numerous experts have worked hard to design and develop organic synthesis, which could make it easier to obtain these crucial organic chemicals. Due to the multistep reactions involving several hazardous chemicals, conventional organic synthesis is neither commercially feasible nor environmentally benign. To overcome these issues, improvisation or developing a new synthetic approach with a superior atom and step economic procedure is always desirable. The biggest challenge in organic synthesis is functionalizing a carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bond in a molecule. This is generally achieved through radical intermediates and catalysis by enzymes or transition metals. The transition metal-catalyzed process is the most popular due to its high chemoselectivity, site-selectivity, and efficiency (Yamaguchi et al., 2012). Inert C-H bonds can be directly functionalized, offering appealing synthetic strategies that enhance both atom and step economy and provide an overall efficiency of multistep synthetic sequences, leading to a sustainable and greener approach. These optimizations provide atom and step-economical methods for synthesizing structurally complicated organic molecules with broad substrate scope and good to exceptional product yields (Ackermann, 2011; Gensch et al., 2016). Direct conversion from the substrate to the desired organic compound without pre-functionalization is attractive and cost-effective. However, it can be quite challenging to selectively functionalize particular C-H bonds due to the inertness of those C-H bonds having similar electronic and bonding properties and the ubiquity of C-H bonds in organic molecules (Sambiagio et al., 2018). Two main techniques have been explored to obtain selectivity in C-H bond functionalization (Brückl et al., 2012). The first is based only on the natural reactivity pattern of an organic molecule. This strategy is highly successful for some heterocycles with at least one specific reactive site due to the presence of heteroatoms. However, it produces inadequate selectivity for most aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. The latter is to direct further functionalization at a particular site using directing groups already present in the molecule (Kuhl et al., 2012). The development of directing groups that effectively control the regioselectivity of C-H functionalization has lately transformed this field, enabling the incorporation of desired groups in unfunctionalized sites (Docherty et al., 2023; Labinger & Bercaw, 2002). Employing directing groups, various functional groups are added to a molecule using this method. Directing groups are crucial for breaking a C-H bond in a transition metal catalysis reaction, where the metal center in the active catalyst complex is usually coordinated with the substrate through a weak interaction with the nearby C-H bond. This interaction is typically not selective; thus, the metal centre may activate numerous C-H bonds on the substrate. However, when a directing group is incorporated into a substrate, the metal center can interact more strongly and regioselectively with a specific region on the substrate as directed by the directing group. This causes selective cleavage

Abstract

Dietary phytochemicals and herbal medicines are under intensive investigation for their potential as chemopreventive agents against various diseases due to the wide variety of microbial and plant functionally relevant secondary metabolites. The chemical diversity of phytochemicals, as well as phytochemicals and complex metabolic interactions between the biological systems may exceed the capacity of the platforms of traditional analysis, and therefore pose major challenges in the study of chemopreventive phytochemical compounds.

Introduction

Zymomonas mobilis, a gram negative, anaerobic, micro aerotolerant, ethanologenic bacterium metabolizes glucose, fructose, and sucrose. One of the major factor that limits the usage of Z. mobilis is the narrow substrate range. Moreover, there are no obvious genes reported for using lactose, maltose or cellobiose. Our preliminary sequence analysis of the Zymomonas mobilis ZM4 genome indicated the presence of a putative beta-galactosidase (bga) gene. However, the mechanism of beta-galactosidase (Bga) function is still unknown. Hence, Bioinformatics analysis was made to predict the physicochemical, biochemical and biophysical properties, domains, secondary and tertiary structures of the putative beta-galactosidase. These studies suggested that the putative beta-galactosidase gene was poorly expressed from its native promoter in Z. mobilis. The absence of beta-galactoside transacetylase and permease genes in Z. mobilis led to its inability to metabolize lactose. Hence, function predictions of Bga are performed because of the fact that it has a homologous partner.

Indian canes probably originated in the moist parts of North Eastern India from some plants closely related to Saccharum spontaneum (Barber, 1931). Brandes (1956) concluded that tropical cane might have originated in some of the larger islands of Oceania countries most probably in New Guinea, where various forms of thick, tall tropical canes have been grown from ancient times. Parthasarathy (1946) believed that India is the original home of Saccharum officinarum.

Abstract

Wild plants of medicinal value are the embodiment of knowledge perception gift from our ancestors and these plays a significant role in curing various human health disorders. This gifted knowledge of economic plants used by the local people usually has long narrations for use in their daily activities. Considering the value of indigenous knowledge associated with plants, a study was undertaken on herbaceous communities in Atraulia area (Burhanpur tehsil), district Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh. During the investigation, a total of 71 informants (22 females and 49 males) were interviewed and data regarding ethnobotanical information on wild plant species were documented and analysed. The results indicated a total of 169 species belonging to 41 families used in indigenous herbal preparation as medicine from Atraulia area by local tribal people. The dominant growth forms were the annual herbs represented by 91 species, followed by 46 species of perennial nature and 32 species of biennial growth. Therefore, we can conclude that this region is rich in herbaceous plants and plant used as medicine is wide spread in the study area. This communication deals with demography of the informants, botanical name of herbaceous plants, family, part used, disease cure, use report, frequency of use and recommendation for conservation of unique valueable resources.

“Biodiversity, the planet’s most valuable resource, is on loan to us from our children.”

The significance of Plant Genetic Resources (PGR’s) is on top of agenda of all those who are concerned with food, nutritional and environmental security by using the Earth’s plant - biodiversity judiciously in a vital form. Agro-biodiversity is the backbone of a nation’s food security and the basis of economic development as a whole. The top-down system of agricultural research, where farmers are seen merely as recipients of research rather than as participants in it, has contributed to an increased dependence on a relatively few plant varieties. Global cooperation from farmers to agricultural scientist is critical for maintaining the balance across the agricultural landscape. Over the years this diversity in India is under pressure due to the massive commercialization of agriculture leading to the almost extinction of traditional farming systems and plant- biodiversity is under immediate threat. Behind this commercialization there lies the interest of the breeders for obtaining intellectual property rights. Around 1.6 billion people depend on farm-saved seed, yet up to 75 per cent of varieties of some key crops have already been lost this century. The rate of loss may well increase as global trade rules, intellectual property rights regimes, the concentration of agricultural research and development on inappropriate technological‘solutions’, and now the introduction and promotion of genetically engineered products, all combine to erode local resources from the fields of smallholder farmers. At the moment, it should call for a balancing on research into modern biotechnology, in favour of a redirection of research and development resources into sustainable, environmentally-friendly technologies that, sustain poor people’s livelihoods, agricultural biodiversity and agro-ecosystem functions. In this context, the importance of farmer-derived Agricultural Biodiversity that includes the variety and variability of plants and micro-organisms which are necessary to maintain the structure, processes and key functions of the agricultural ecosystem for, and in support of, food production and food security.

INTRODUCTION

The interactions of plant communities – natural or man-made, with their pests are invariably complex, and the complexity further increases with the diversity of the system. When a farmer adopts agroforestry instead of monocultures, the opportunities of relatively easy monitoring of the pest and their frequent disturbance through crop rotation, tillage and burning are traded against a greater stability of the system with an increased potential for self-regulation, which is however complex and more difficult to control. For this trade to be successful in reducing pest risks, agroforesters should not merely rely on increased diversity, but should attempt to integrate into their decisions the full range of traditional and scientific knowledge on the interactions between plant species, planting designs and management practices on one hand, and pests and their natural enemies on the other hand. This obviously requires collecting knowledge and organizing in more systematic way than up to now.

Introduction

Knowledge of the avian respiratory system is essential for developing a health monitoring plan for a poultry flock, recognizing problems that may occur, and taking action to correct them. The avian respiratory system begins with nostril includes trachea, bronchi (bronchus) and ends with lungs and air sacs. Respiratory diseases are the most common cause of death in a poultry flock.

The avian respiratory system is involved in the following functions:

• Absorption of oxygen (O2)

• Release of carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Release of heat (temperature regulation)

• Detoxification of certain chemicals

• Rapid adjustments of acid/base balance

• Vocalization

Practical application is essential for developing competence in programme evaluation and agricultural extension programme management. This chapter translates the concepts, theories and evaluation frameworks presented in the preceding chapters into structured learning activities. The practical exercises are designed to develop students’ ability to analyse programmes, identify appropriate evaluation approaches, develop indicators, collect and interpret evidence, and communicate evaluation findings. Activities include literature searches on Utilization-Focused Evaluation, Values-Engaged Evaluation, Empowerment Evaluation and Theory-Driven Evaluation; field visits to extension organizations; preparation of evaluation proposals; review and meta-evaluation of programme evaluation reports; SWOT analysis; programme activity identification; Gantt chart preparation; application of Bennett’s Hierarchy; Logical Framework Analysis using a 4 × 4 matrix; and assessment of agricultural technology impacts through KVK/ATIC visits. The chapter also provides practical exercises on Environmental Impact Assessment, Social Impact Assessment, Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation, and comprehensive evaluation report writing and presentation. These activities are intended to strengthen analytical thinking, practical skills, evidence-based decision-making and professional competence in agricultural extension evaluation

Abstract

Bacilli, a group of endospore forming bacteria present in soil, contribute directly or indirectly to crop productivity. Bacilli have many physiological unique traits like multilayered cell wall, stress resistant endospore formation, secretion of peptide antibiotics, peptide signal molecules, extracellular enzymes, which make them ubiquitous and assist to their survival under adverse environmental conditions for long time.

Plant genetic resources represent both the basis for agricultural development and a reservoir of genetic adaptability that acts as a buffer against environmental changes. The erosion of these resources threatens world food security. From an agricultural utilitarian standpoint, plant genetic resources can be considered limited and perishable natural resources. PGR forms a distinct group and include all plant species, which contribute to people livelihoods by providing food, medicine, feed for domestic animals, fibres, clothing, shelter, energy and other uses and are subject to cultivation by man as well as the wild relatives of these species. Genetic diversity simply means all the variety of genes that exist in a particular variety or species. They provide the raw material (genes) which, when used and combined in the right way, produce new and better plant varieties, and are an irreplaceable source of such characteristics as resistance to disease, local adaptation, and productivity. Plant genetic resources are now, and will continue to be in the future, of inestimable value independently of whether scientists use them by means of conventional plant breeding or modern genetic engineering. These genes are dispersed throughout local cultivars and natural plant populations that have been selected over thousands of years by farmers and nature for their characteristics of adaptation, resistance and/or productivity. The road to a continuous increase in the production and quality of food lies through the protection and efficient utilization of plant genetic resources; this requires their conservation, evaluation, documentation and exchange.

Partitioning of Energy in Livestock

Energy Partitioning

Partitioning of energy involves loss and distribution of feed energy into different body functions.

Gross energy is calculated from the heat produced when a sample of feed or feces is subjected to complete combustion in a bomb calorimeter under a pressurized oxygen atmosphere.

Apparent digestible energy is the difference between the gross energy of the feed consumed and the gross energy of the feces excreted. Digestion is accompanied by the production of gases in both fore- and hindgut and by the urinary excretion of metabolites.

Metabolizable energy is the difference between digestible energy and energy lost to gases and urine. Metabolic processes and physical activity produce heat (heat of production) which may warm the animal in cold weather. In hot weather, energy may be required to expel excess heat of production, through panting and increased respiratory rate.

Net energy is the remaining energy available for maintenance, reproduction and production. The diagram on the left illustrates energy partitioning for a particular cow near the end of her lactation. Energetic efficiency of this cow is about 29%, expressed as output in the form of milk, gain and fetal growth divided by gross energy input. Although their energy requirements are significantly greater, higher producing cows are also more energetically efficient.

ABSTRACT

Modelling has been used in natural sciences since centuries in one-way or the other. However, system modelling as a discipline in itself is established in the recent years. Agroforestry modelling is a complex process that essentially involves at least two elements viz. tree and crop, where tree is the long term and crop is the short-term component. Agroforestry models, usually, predict tree growth and yield and the reduction/enhancement in crop yield as influenced by the tree component in temporal and spatial sequence. In this paper the need of modeling, stages of model development, its validation and classification of models are given. The models, which are relevant to agroforestry, have also been given.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry combines agriculture and forestry technologies to create more integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land use systems. According to the Association for Temperate Agroforestry - “Agroforestry practices are intentional combinations of trees with crops and/ or livestock that involve intensive management of the interactions between the components as an integrated agroecosystem”. These key characteristics are the essence of agroforestry and are what distinguish it from other farming or forestry practices. To be called agroforestry, a land use practice must satisfy all of these criteria:

1. The example of trisaccharide is—————————.

   a) Raffinose

   b) Maltose

   c) Glucose

   d) Sucrose

2. Betaoxidation of fatty acid was proposed by ———————.

   a) Rose

   b) Knoop

   c) J.B Sumner

   d) Bloor

In the past, there was no targeted development of biomaterial based on scientific criteria. Instead devices consisting of material that had been designed, synthesized and fabricated for various industrial needs (the textile, aerospace, and defense industries) were tested in a trial and error fashion in the bodies of humans and animals. These unplanned and sporadic attempts had modest success. Most frequently, the results were unpredictable, mixed, and confounding both in success and in failure. In addition to traditional medical devices, diagnostic products, pharmaceutical preparations and healthcare disposables, now the list of biomaterial application includes smart delivery systems for drugs, tissue cultures, engineered tissues and hybrid organs. Undoubtedly biomaterial have had major impact on the practice of contemporary medicine and patient care in both saving and improving the quality of lives of the humans and animals4.

INTRODUCTION

Indigenous agroforestry systems exhibit a great intricacy with respect to their components where trees, shrubs, climbers and grasses are common. In the north-western Himalaya, farmers maintain naturally regenerating tree/shrub species, particularly on edges of terraced agriculture fields without any significant input of manpower. These systems are called as indigenous agroforestry system (Ram and Singh 1996; Vishvakarma et al. 1998, Thakur et al. 2004 and 2005). Shrubs have been meeting the fuel wood requirement of the local peasants from forest as well as village wasteland and field boundaries. Shrub dominated ecosystems extend from arctic to tropical region and occur over the entire moisture gradient from desert to wetland (Specth 1979; DI Castro 1981; West 1983). 

r DNA Biotechnology
    
Concept of r DNA
    
DNA Preparation from Tissue
    
Reagents
    
Preparation
    
DNA Buffer (Tris-EDTA)
    
RNase A (20 mg/ml)
    
Toe DNA Preparation for Southern Blots
    
Southern Blot
    
PCR
    
Polymerase Chain Reaction
    
The Cycling Reactions
    
Denaturation at 94°C
    
Annealing at 54°C
    
Extension at 72°C
    
DNA Sequencing
    
The Sequencing Reaction
    
Denaturation at 94°C
    
Annealing at 50°C
    
Extension at 60°C
    
Separation of the Molecules
    
Detection on An Automated Sequencer
    
Assembling of The Sequenced Parts of a Gene
    
Freezing of Buffalo Semen (Jindal, 1995)
    
Tissue Culture
    
Preparation of Media
    
Laboratory Procedure for IVF (Kharche et al., 2008)
    
Source of Oocytes
    
Preparation of Estrous Goat Serum
    
Collection of Oocytes
    
Laparoscopic Ovum Pick-up
    
Oocyte Retrieval from Ovaries Collected form Slaughter 
    
House
    
Slicing Technique
    
Follicle Puncture Technique
    
Follicle Aspiration Technique
    
Follicle Isolation Technique
    
Evaluation of Oocytes
    
In vitro Maturation of Oocytes
    
Preparation of Cells for Co-culture
    
Assessment of Nuclear Maturation After in vitro Maturation of Oocytes
    
Analysis of Nuclear Status is Ascribed to One of the Following
    
Sperm Preparation for in vitro Fertilization of Oocytes
    
In vitro Fertilization of Oocytes
    
Assessment of in vitro Fertilization of Oocytes
    
Assessment of Cleavage
    
In vitro embryo culture

Abstract

Since the beginning of the civilization, medicinal plants have been used to prevent and treat various ailments. At present, most of the pharmaceutical/ nutraceutical industries highly depend on wild medicinal plants for the supply of raw materials for extraction of bioactive compounds. As medicinal plants receive increased scientific and commercial attention, there is increasing pressure on the wild medicinal plant populations.