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Henna or Mehandi (Lawsonia inermis L.) a perennial shrub belongs to family Lythraceae. It is commonly cultivated as a commercial dye crop possess natural dyeing properties and are used for hair dyeing and for staining of palm, feet and other body parts since times immemorial. The plant finds their importance due to presence of orange red dye in its leaves and essential oil in its flower. Oil extracted from leaves and flower called ‘Otto of henna’ which is utilized as perfume (Jaimini et al., 2005). It can grow well in harsh climate of arid and semiarid regions. In India, over 90 percent of the henna production comes from Sojat region of Pali district of Rajasthan and Sojat is only center for its processing and trading in India. In India it occupies about 40,000 ha area out of which 35,000 ha alone is in Pali district (Sojat and adjoining tehsils).

Geographical distribution

It occurs naturally in North Africa mainly in countries of Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Morocco, Oman, Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, Tanzania, Tunisia, Turkey, Sahara and Yemen. It is naturally occurring in many of these countries along the water courses and semi-arid regions where it can with stand dryness as well as drought. It has been introduced into countries like Australia, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central Africa, Chad, Congo, China, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, India, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Spain, Sudan, Togo and Zanzibar (Suresh Kumar et al., 2005).

Distribution

Several countries grow henna on a commercial scale for its dye-bearing leaves, notably India, Egypt, Iran, Niger, Sudan and Pakistan. In India, it was once grown extensively in Punjab and Gujarat. However, gradually the major cultivation has shifted to the arid fringes of Rajasthan, with Pali district having the maximum area under henna. It is taken as an annual Ratoon crop under rainfed conditions. Presently over 39,000 ha of henna plantations in the district with nearly 70 per cent occurring in the Sojat area produce around 20,000 t dry leaves worth Rs. 40 crores. Besides this, leaf cuttings are also collected from existing farms and field boundary plantations in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. In Uttar Pradesh henna is grown for its scented flowers used in the essence industry. Kannauj, Lucknow, and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh are reputed centres for the commercial extraction of mehndi oil from flowers and its use in traditional essence. Since henna is grown as a dryland crop under limited moisture conditions greater use of available moisture by the plants is possible.

India is a huge importer of crude oil and spends about Rs. 1,200 billion of foreign exchange every year to meet 75% of its oil needs (Anand, 2006). This has affected its balance of payment adversely, especially after the unprecedented rise incrude oil prices. Being an agricultural country endowed with varied climates, nutrient-rich soil and ability to grow many different crops, India offers a great promise as a producer of surplus raw material for biodiesel and bioethanol production. India’s biofuel production currently accounts for only 1 percent of global production (Shinoj et al., 2012). Although all oils can be used, edible oils as a source for biodiesel production have to be ruled out because they are required for cooking and food purposes. Therefore, non-edible oils are the premier raw material for biodiesel production in India. Seeds rich in these oils are mostly produced by perennial species. Hence these trees are referred to as tree-borne oilseed species (TBOS) and they produce TBOs (Aurora and Kumar, 2015). TBOs are cultivated/grown in the country under different agro-climatic conditions in a scattered form in forest and non-forest areas as well as in waste land/deserts/hilly areas. The country has enormous potential of oilseeds of tree origin like mahua (Madhuca indica),neem (Azadirachta indica), simarouba (Simarouba glauca), karanja (Pongamia pinnata), ratanjyot (Jatropha curcas), jojoba (Simmondsia chinesis), cheura (Diploknema butyracea), kokum (Garcinia indica),wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca), wild walnut (Aleurites molucana), kusum (Schleichera oleosa), tung (Vernicia fordii), etc. The best characteristic is that it can be grown and established in the wasteland and have varied agro-climatic conditions. (Aurora and Kumar, 2015)

Of the total land area of the world, arid zones account for 18.8%. Throughout the arid zones, there is no dearth of problems, but rapidly increasing desertification (some call it land degradation) is a problem of worldwide dimension. Water is a scare commodity in arid zones. Much of rainfall is lost by evapo-transpiration and as a result, ground water recharged only by seepage through soil profile. However, it is a common phenomenon in arid zones of the worlds that ground water is frequently used at the rate that exceeds recharge. The situation in arid tropics of India, which is spread over an area of 31.7 million ha, is no more different.

Agriculture is the human enterprise that is most vulnerable to climate change. Tropical agriculture including agriculture in arid tropics, particularly subsistence agriculture is vulnerable, as farmers do not have adequate resources to adapt to climate change. Land-use options that increase livelihood security and reduce vulnerability to climate and environmental change are necessary. Rural folk in arid western Rajasthan, the principal hot arid region of the country have been practising arable cropping in association with these scattered trees on crop fields since time immemorial. This combined protective-productive system of integration of trees into farming system rooted in the principles of ecology, productivity, economics and sustainability, is generally referred as agroforestry. In fragile ecosystems of hot arid regions of India

Rainfed farming has a distinct place in Indian Agriculture, occupying 67% of the cultivated area, contributing 44% of the food grains and supporting 40% of the human and 65% of the livestock population. It is characterized by resource poor farmers, poor infrastructure and low investment in technology inputs (Singh, 1999). The land use in rainfed areas is quite diverse with a variety of crops, cropping systems, agroforestry and livestock farming. The productivity levels have remained low over the years and the share of rainfed crops in the total food grain production has been declining. The rainfed ecosystem suffers from the problems of (i) frequent droughts due to high variability in the quantum and distribution of rainfall, (ii) poor soil health due to continued degradation and inadequate replenishment of nutrient exhaustion, (iii) low animal productivity due to an acute scarcity of fodder and (iv) low risk bearing capacity of farmers due to poor socio-economic base, credit availability and infrastructure.

Indian hot arid zone which is about 12% of total geographical area of the landmass of 0.32 million km² has maximum covering in western Rajasthan i.e. 61% of the total area whereas the other areas in arid region are available in the states of Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka accounting for 20, 5, 4, 7 and 3% of hot arid area whereas the cold arid area of 8.4 million ha lies in the state of Jammu & Kashmir covering the Leh and Ladakh region.

The hot arid area is characterized by frequent droughts of 47% of frequency in the last century of moderate to severe nature. Due to higher occurrence frequency of droughts in this region of state, the livestock assumes great importance as a drought management measure as agriculture is at the mercy of rainfall pattern which is very uncertain in amount as well as distribution coupled with poor soil condition, higher evapotranspiration and higher wind velocity causing the soil erosion.

For arid region of Rajasthanthe general climatic conditions, topographical features and biotic factors do not encourage agricultural operations in the absence of extractive industry the peasantry has to fall upon animal husbandry as their main occupation. Rearing some of the finest breed of cattle, camel, sheep and goats known for their endurance making much use of the meagre feed resources which are grasses ,herbs, shrubs, tree leaves and cultivated feed and fodder crops. Livestock farming has some in built superiority over crop farming as far as growth; stability and resource conservation are concerned. On an average, the region experiences 3 years of drought in every 10 years. The natural forces constituting the soil-climatic complex, which conspire to reduce the crop productivity and cause instability in agricultural production, have much less impact on livestock farming. This is due to differences in the nutritive value of natural vegetation, which mainly sustains livestock.

Biodiversity is a matter of concern to everyone as most of the economic sectors depends on it e.g. agriculture depends on it for wild genetic resources and biological control, human health depends on nature for many pharmaceuticals, industry requires raw materials which come from the nature, tourism increasingly base its attraction on natural amenities linked to biodiversity, water resources require intact vegetation to protect watershed and prevent siltation, disaster prevention needs natural vegetation to help people to respond to drought and the lists goes on and on (Mc Neely, 2004). Each of these sectors needs to be reminded of its reliance on biodiversity and provided with opportunity to invest in insuring the continued survival of the biological basis of their prosperity. Thus biodiversity has emerged as an integral aspect of human life and hence undoubtedly one of the keystone of sustainable development. Biodiversity in arid lands are under severe threats due to habitat destruction (Manuder and Clubbe, 2002), invasion of species (O’Kennen et al., 1999) dilution of customary conservation practices, climate change (Given, 1994; WCMC, 1992), increasing human population, unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, grazing pressure etc.

Global warming and climate change are becoming major challenges in the front of global community to deal with. Climate change is no more a myth but it is reality. The IPCC, 5^th assessment report clearly stated that “evidence of climate- change impacts is strongest and most comprehensive for natural systems”. Natural and human systems of almost all continents in the world have been affected by climate change in recent decades (IPCC, 2014). Agriculture is essential for sustainability of human life on earth but change in climate is threatening its sustainability. In recent decades all aspects of food security has been potentially affected by climate change, including food access, utilization, and price stability. It has been projected that in absence of adaptation measure, increases in local temperature by 2°C or more above late-20^th-century levels will negatively impact production of the major crops in tropical and temperate regions.

Agriculture is one of the major economic activities responsible for food security and livelihood for millions of people. Success, production and productivity of agricultural crops are highly dependent on climate, soil and water. Thus climate change will have adverse effect on agricultural crops. High atmospheric temperature, unpredicted erratic rainfall, rapid soil degradation and evolution of new insect and pests due to climate change will offer new challenge to sustain agriculture. Many part of the world and India is already experiencing impact of climate change on agricultural crops (like early maturity, geographical shift and occurrence of new pests) and these impacts are predicted to increase rapidly in future. The increasing concern about adverse impact of climate change on food security has led to extensive research and documentation of impact of climate change on field crops like rice, wheat and maize. While the clear and holistic idea about impact of climate change on horticultural crops like vegetables and fruits are not well documented especially in developing countries like India.

Dry areas specially arid and semiarid regions are characterized by harsh climatic condition with limited natural resources like fresh water and vegetation. Soil which is most important component for agricultural production is also problematic in this region due to high salt content. Further, these regions face dual water problems: very low rainfall and poor quality of available water. Most of the available groundwater in these areas has high salt content, which further enhance salt content in soil after irrigation with this water. Salinity of soil is one of the most severe abiotic factors limiting agricultural production in arid and semiarid regions of the world. Term ‘salt-affected soil’ refer to soils in which salts interfere with normal plant growth, and is broadly divided into saline, saline- sodic and sodic soil, depending on amounts of salt, type of salts, amount of sodium present and soil alkalinity. Excessive soluble salts in the saline soil limit the ability of plant roots to absorb soil water even under wet soil conditions, while high sodium content in sodic soil reduce the availability of Ca, Mg, other micronutrients and finally deteriorate physical condition of soil. Poor physical structure of soil results in difficult to till, poor seed germination due to soil crusting and restricted plant root growth. Due to the poor physical structure, sodic soils are also susceptible to wind and water erosion compared to saline soils. All these negative impact of salt accumulation on the soil finally affect growth and yield of the crops. As per estimates of ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal, crop production loss to country due to sodicity is around 11.18 million tonnes while due to salinity is around 5.66 million tonnes. Furthermore, the area under this category is rising due to secondary salinization caused by faulty management of irrigation water, seepage loss, impeded drainage, rapid rise of water table causing water-logging. Certainly, these soils and saline water threaten the livelihood security of farming community. The area under cultivation is decreasing due to diversion of agricultural land in to other uses to meet needs of rising population and as such, agriculture has to make best use of poor quality land and water resources to meet the food demand. Therefore, management of salt affected soil become necessary for ameliorating negative impact and enhancing agricultural production in these regions. Each type of salt-affected soil has different characteristics and thus required different strategies for management.

Sustainable development and efficient management of water is an increasingly complex challenge in India. Increasing population, growing urbanization and rapid industrialization combined with the need for raising agricultural production generates competing claims for water. Ground water has an important role in meeting the water requirements of agriculture, industrial and domestic sectors in India. About 85 percent of India’s rural domestic water requirements, 50 percent of its urban water requirements and more than 50 percent of its irrigation requirements are being met from ground water resources. Ground water is annually replenishable resource but its availability is non-uniform in space and time. Technically, the dynamic ground water refers to the quantity of ground water available in the zone of water level fluctuation, which is replenished annually. Hence, the sustainable development of ground water resources warrants precise quantitative assessment based on reasonably valid scientific principles. National Water Policy, 2012 has laid emphasis on periodic assessment of ground water resources on scientific basis. The trends in water availability due to various factors including climate change must also be assessed and accounted for during water resources planning. To meet the increasing demands of water, it advocates direct use of rainfall, desalination and avoidance of inadvertent evapo-transpiration for augmenting utilizable water resources. The National Water Policy, 2012 also states that safe water for drinking and sanitation should be considered as pre-emptive needs followed by high priority allocation for other domestic needs (including needs of animals), achieving food security, supporting sustenance agriculture and minimum eco-system needs. Available water, after meeting the above needs should be allocated in a manner to promote its conservation and efficient use.

There has been an increasing demand for horticultural crops more particularly fruit .With this, the demand for good quality planting materials has gone up and hence the nursery business has developed rapidly in the recent years in our country. Plant propagation aims at the reproduction of selected individuals or group of individuals, in this the basic principal of life impose certain requirements which must be met with in practices for successful propagation. Plants material of various fruit crops have not only to be raised efficiently and scientifically, for which skilled knowledge in raising and management of nurseries is needed, but also these have to be transported quickly from nurseries to place where these plants materials will be grown.

Availability of quality planting material is one of the most importanant requirement for increasing the production and productivity of any fruit crops. It becomes one of the great challenges for horticulturists to get the disease free quality planting materials of fruit crops from an efficient and reliable nursery.

Micro irrigation normally called as drip irrigation was introduced in early seventies. Drip irrigation is one of the advanced methods of irrigation, by which water can be supplied directly into the root zone of the soil to achieve considerable saving of water through high water use efficiency, compared to surface irrigation method where water use efficiency is low due to losses in the water distribution system in the field. In micro irrigation method, water supplied at slow rate that is 1.0-2.0 kg/sq cm to the root zone of an individual plant through lets called emitters or drippers fitted with laterals pipes and filters at pump side. The success of micro irrigation is proven and efforts are being made in promoting the same extensively among the farmers in arid areas.

The hot arid regions of India are spread over about 31.7 million ha area mainly in the States of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana, which inhabit on an average 61 persons per square km making up a population of nearly 20 million peoples. The Indian arid zone is characterized by high temperature and low and variable precipitation which limit the scope for high horticultural productivity. However, these conditions greatly favour development of high quality production in number of fruits such as date palm, ber, pomegranate, citrus, aonla, bael, grapes and, guava. The optimized technologies and inputs could increase the existing low productivity. It is now realized that there is a limited scope for quantum jump in fruit and vegetable production in the traditional production areas. The amelioration of the extreme conditions is also considered vital for life support to the inhabitants of this area. The recent awareness regarding the potential of these ecologically fragile lands for production of quality horticultural produce has not only opened up scope for providing economic sustenance for the people of this region, but also for bringing new areas to increase production through horticulture.

In the present scenario of rapidly increasing population and decreasing cultivable land, there is urgent need to increase the agricultural productivity. According to Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), 280 million tones food grain would be required to match the country’s demand by 2020. It will be a difficult task to meet this food requirement in near future from the present productivity levels. It is necessary to increase agricultural productivity, because about 60% of Indian agriculture is rainfed. Proper use of even a single drop of rain water is necessary to ensure the success of rainfed agriculture. In hills, agriculture is main source of livelihood of rural people. However, small and scattered land holding, difficult topography, womendependent agriculture, totally rainfed, typical socio-economic factors and migration of youth towards urban/plain areas are major constraints of hill horticulture.

In the high altitude areas, the river flow in deep valley at the toe of slopes rarely serve any purpose as far as domestic water supply and irrigation are concerned and hence, agriculture in these areas is mostly rainfed. However, these areas received high magnitude of rainfall but this rainwater is not possible to convert into soil moisture due to steep terrain of hills which provided minimum opportunity time for infiltration of rainwater. It has been estimated that only less than 15 per cent of the rainwater is able to percolate down through slopes and recharge the soil moisture. The rainfall pattern hill is erratic i.e. most of rain (approximately 70% of annual rain) received only during the two months of monsoon. Furthermore, the climate of high altitudes comprises several climatic anomalies such as wide variability in temperature (-3 ^oC to 35 ^oC), frequent snowfall, hail, sleet and erratic pattern of rainfall. Under such abrupt conditions crops grown in open conditions could not be sustained.

Increasing susceptibility of vegetables to various biotic and abiotic stresses and very high cost of hybrid seeds has warranted the attention of the vegetable growers to improve the nursery raising technology of vegetables. Now-a-days protected nursery raising of vegetables has become a full flagged industry in several developed countries like Israel, Japan, Spain, Netherlands, USA etc. In countries like Israel no vegetable grower is growing his own nursery, but they are getting the required kind of seedlings from an established nursery owner on pre- order basis. Similar system of nursery raising is also prevalent in several other advance countries. In those situations where vegetables are being grown under protected conditions it becomes pre-requisite to raise the required vegetable seedlings only under protected environment to get virus free healthy seedlings.

Raising nursery from seeds provide an easy and convenient way to nourish tender and young seedlings in a well managed, small and compact area for better germination of small and costly seed. In general, vegetables crops are divided into three groups according to their relative ease for transplanting. Beet root, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, tomato and lettuce are efficient in water absorption and rapidly form new roots after transplanting. Vegetables crops that are moderately easy for transplanting are brinjal, onion, sweet pepper, chilli and celery which do not absorb water as efficiently as crops that are easy to transplant, but they form new roots relatively quickly. The vegetable crops which are difficult to transplant are: all cucurbits and sweet corn which require special care during nursery raising and transplanting. Seedlings not only reduce the amount of time of the crop but it also increases the uniformity of the crop and harvesting as compared to direct sowing of the crops. Transplanting of seedlings also eliminates the need for thinning and provides very good opportunities for virus free, vigorous and even off-season seedlings if grown under protected conditions in soil-less media. So it becomes necessary to know the protected structures which can be efficiently used for successful raising of vegetable seedlings, suitable types of containers and growing media, method of seeding in containers in soil-less media, growing conditions and water and fertilizer requirement of seedlings along with hardening and transplanting to the field. Protected nursery raising technology is highly suitable and can be established as a small scale industry in major vegetable growing areas of our country by progressive farmers especially in peri-urban areas. By this way the vegetable growers will get virus-free healthy and off season nursery as per their requirement and it generate extra employment in rural areas.

Energy and food are the two main requirements for human civilization; however the demands for these two resources are increasing in a fast rate. Development of any region is reflected in its quantum of energy consumption. In this context, the situation in arid region is difficult. People burn firewood, agricultural waste and cow dung cake for cooking food causing damages to the fragile eco-system of arid zone. There is inadequate electrical power supply and hence villagers of remote arid areas are unable to derive general benefits. The kerosene is used for lighting and fast depleting diesel oil is used for running agricultural machinery including pumps. In this context solar energy is considered to be one of the promising sources in India.

About 12% of electricity production capacity in India is met through renewable energy sources. In India, national solar mission was launched in November 2009 with a target of 4000 MW grid and 1000 MW off-grid electricity generation from solar energy by the end of phase II (2013-2017), whereas these targets are 20,000 MW and 2000 MW, respectively by 2022. The target has been revised in 2015 to a total grid connected solar power generation of 1,00,000 MW comprising of 40,000 MW roof top generation and 60,000 MW grid connected solar power plants (Resolution of MNRE, Govt of India, No. 30/80/ 2014-15/NSM dated 1^st July 2015).

Global climate changing has been a focus for a long time in many fields, the increasing CO₂ concentration in atmosphere was considered as one main driving force for global warming. The increases in greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere contributed to raise concerns over climate change enhanced the role of forests and plantations in the global carbon cycle are growing as a great issue. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is one of the main greenhouse gases because a huge volume of CO₂ is added to the atmosphere, when compare to all other greenhouse gases and made itself as a primary agent of global warming. It contributed 72 per cent of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gases, causing between 9-26 per cent of the greenhouse effect (Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there has been an unprecedented warming trend during the 20th century. Scientists now have estimated that the average global surface temperature is likely to rise by 1.4 to 5.8°C by the end of the 21^st century (IPCC 2007).

The IPCC estimates that the level of carbon dioxide in today’s atmosphere is 31 per cent higher than it was at the start of the Industrial Revolution about 250 years ago. An atmospheric level of CO₂ has risen from 280 ppm at the pre-industrial to the present level of 375 ppm. Most of the increase has occurred in the second half of the 20^th century. The mitigation of climate change demands, determined commitment of scientists to develop strategies to effectively manage the issues of the changing climate through carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration is ought to be a promising solution for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas.

The arid region of India covers about 12 % of countries geographical area and occupies over 3.17 lakh Km² of hot desert located in the parts of Rajasthan (61%), Gujarat (20%), Punjab and Haryana (9.0%), Andhra Pradesh (7%), Maharashtra (0.4%) and Karnataka (3.0%). In addition to this an area of about 78 thousand Km² of cold desert in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh presents an entirely different set of agro climatic conditions as compared to hot arid zone. The hot arid region is characterized by low and erratic distribution of rainfall (< 100 to 400 mm), high temperature, low relative humidity, high potential evapo-transpiration, high sunshine and high wind speed during summer. Soils of this region are dry for most part of the year and suffer from water stress. Besides growing annual crops, a great emphasis is being laid on the development of agroforestry systems in this region which also includes cultivation of arid fruit crops in cropping systems. Horticulture based production systems are considered to be the most ideal strategy to provide food, nutrition and income security to the people (Chundawat, 1993). Integration of annual crops with fruit trees yields multiple outputs that ensure production and income generation.

According to FAO estimates, about 50% total geographical area in India is under various degraded hazards and about 2.1 million ha of land is getting degraded and deforested annually (Sehgal et al. 1998). Out of that underground water in arid and semi-arid areas is saline or sodic in nature. While spices, medicinal and aromatic plants may be a boon for these areas, which not only withstand under adverse conditions but also could be productive and helps in mitigating these problems. However, other crops are remain less or unproductive in these areas.

Spices are low volume and high value crops and have tremendous export potential, which is witnessed by several invasions faced by this Indian peninsula during ancient time. Medicinal and aromatic plants have an equally market potential with the world demand of herbal products growing at the rate of 7 per cent per annum (Aishwath and Tarafdar, 2007). Seed spices and aromatic plants are the natural source of flavour, perfumes and fragrance widely exploited by essential oil industries in the world. Owing to considerable diversity of edaphoclimatic conditions ranging from temperate to tropical and arid to sub- humid that prevails in India and an array of medicinal and aromatic flora occurs in wild state. Many exotic essential oil bearing plants, including mints, citronella, geranium, patchouli, lavender and chamomile have been naturalized in India. As the country has emerged as one of the main producers of seed spices and some of the essential oils, theses plants are significant foreign exchange earners. Some of the aromatic plants especially grasses can sustain both biotic as well as abiotc stresses, even in the areas unsuitable for conventional crops (Aishwath et al., 2008). Most of the seed spices crops are seasonal crops and comes up well with limited moisture and nutrients. Therefore, under utilized natural resources can be utilized profitably by crop diversification.

Importance of fruits in human diet is well recognized since time immemorial. They are important part of a healthy diet as natural sources of energy, essential vitamins, minerals and antioxidants ever since the beginning of humancivilization. Our country is bestowed with varied climatic conditions, which had made it possible to grow diverse group of fruits from its temperate to tropical, to subtropical and even to arid niches. The cultivation of fruit crops is, presently, one of the most important and profitable proposition. Growing fruit crops translate into realization of more yield/ income from a unit area of land than any of the agronomic crops. However, there is need to considerably increase the yield of fruit crops, particularly under changing environmental conditions as under such conditions diseases are getting more prevalent. Therefore by adoption of proper protection practices, yield of fruit crops can be improved.

Plant diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and phytoplasmas reduce crop yields (Khoury and Makkouk, 2010).Adoption and support for using participatory approaches help to farmers in disease management of fruit crops, reducing costs and improving production efficiency. Fungal, bacterial and viral diseases pose serious threat in the cultivation of fruit crops in India. To reduce the losses caused by plant disease, a complete knowledge of disease management strategies of fruit crops are essential which are as follows:

Fruits with their delightful colours, flavours and tastes are nature’s wonderful gift to mankind. Apart from being the most nutritious food in the form of easily digestible simple sugars, vitamins, minerals and many phyto-nutrients (Plant derived micronutrients), they provide unique health benefits due to their antioxidant properties and valuable fibre. Antioxidants help protect the human body from oxidant stress, diseases, and cancers, and also boost the immunity of the body thus developing the capacity to fight against various types of diseases. The insoluble dietary fiber in fruits is known to provide protection from conditions like chronic constipation, hemorrhoids, colon cancer, irritable bowel syndrome, and rectal fissures etc. Due to their unique nutrition-profile the importance of fruits in our diet cannot be over emphasised.

Insects are a major limiting factor in fruit production. The infestation of insects pests on fruit trees in orchards adversely affects the quality and yield of fruits. The size, shape, taste, attractiveness and palatability of fruit deteroriates, due to which the market price is reduced and the growers incur losses. Fruit growers resort to use of chemical pesticides under such conditions. However many reports suggest that although the global production and use of pesticides in agriculture is increasing every year, but the damage due to insects has not decreased rather it has also increased, indicating that the use of pesticides is not the panacea remedy for all insect related problems. Many scientists are of the opinion that over-reliance on the use of synthetic pesticides in crop protection programs around the world has resulted in disturbances to the environment, pest resurgence, pest resistance to pesticides, and lethal and sub-lethal effects on non target organisms especially beneficial flora and fauna, including humans. Farmers spend thousands of rupees on pesticides. The residues of pesticides in food and fruits is yet another cause of concern. Fruits which are considered to be wonderful for health are often laden with unacceptable levels of pesticide residues nulling their beneficial properties. Pesticides have been linked to many diseases especially cancer. All these issues related with use of pesticides has triggered rethinking on the methods of control.The recent examples of the results of indiscriminate pesticides use , consequent crop failures and suicide by farmers now calls for introspection in this matter.

Heifers are future cows of the herd. Production and reproduction performance of cows depends on the care and management during calf and heifer stage. Rearing period of heifers can be divided into two stages, viz. from weaning to first service and service to calving.

Care of calf before birth

During the last 2-3 months of gestation the fetus grows rapidly. Calf draws a significant quantity of nutrients from the mothers system. It has to be replenished by additional feeding of the cow. A cow should be fed well-balanced ration for maintenance.

Over 85% of the rural population in India is dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. About 50% of them being poor, most of their earnings are spent on meeting their basic needs, particularly food. With the increasing population over the last five decades, their per capita share of land and water resources has reduced substantially. As a result, rural people are faced with the problem of unemployment.

Inspite of agriculture being a major source of livelihood, the productivity as well as profitability in agriculture have been significantly low in the country. While the productivity can be attributed to illiteracy, lack of awareness, poor dissemination of technology, inadequate investment in agricultural inputs and poor communication and information services, lack of profitability is mainly due to inadequate and inefficient infrastructure required for forward and backward integration, poor post harvest and processing facilities and poor connectivity with market, resulting in exploitation by large number of middlemen. Traditionally, the farmers have been dependent on the Agricultural Extension Agencies of the State Government for information, input supply and marketing services. Over the years, these agencies are not being able to cope up with the growing responsibilities and specific needs of the farmers. To overcome this problem, Farmers’ Cooperatives have been promoted to supply various agricultural inputs and organise the marketing of farm produce. Although, this was an excellent concept, most of these cooperatives could not carry out the work economically and efficiently due to lack of commitment from the elected leaders and unfair trade practices by the competing traders. The farmers, not realising the inability of the extension agencies, are still dependent on the Government and external agencies to help them in managing their agri-business.

In last few decades awareness about social and environmental issues has been increased. Agriculture is one of basic enterprise that has major role in these two issues . Organic agriculture is one of the agriculture production system that not only supportive to the environment but also sensitive to the social issues like employment, health, migration etc. Definitions given by two international organizations also verify this concept.

Organic certification is the procedure by which the accredited certification Body by way of a Scope Certificate assures that the production or processing system of the operator has been methodically assessed and conforms to the specified requirements as envisaged in the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP).

The NPOP provides for Standards for organic production, systems, criteria and procedure for accreditation of Certification Bodies, the National (India Organic) Logo and the regulations governing its use. The standards and procedures have been formulated in harmony with other International Standards regulating import and export of organic products.

Introduction

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, climate change refers to the long-term changes (typically decades or longer) in the average state of the climate with statistically significant variations.

The climate change, defined as the long-term imbalance of customary weather conditions such as temperature, radiation, wind and rainfall characteristics of a particular region, is likely to be one of the main challenges for mankind during the present century.

A general definition of climate change is a change in the statistical properties (principally the man and spread) of the climate system when considered over long periods.

Climate Resilience

Climate resilience can be generally defined as the capacity for a socioecological system to: Absorb stresses and maintain function in the face of external stresses imposed upon it by climate change. Adapt, reorganize, and evolve into more desirable configurations that improve the sustainability of the system, leaving it better prepared for future climate change impacts.

Climate change is now a global phenomenon and its impact on livelihood health and wellbeing, and overall quality of life is not deniable. No country is free from the overall impacts of climate change, but poor people of developing countries have been disproportionately affected by the adverse effects. Vulnerability in the context of climate change is a function of sensitivity, exposure and adaptive capacities. Odisha is the 9^th largest state by area and the 11th largest state by population in India. The state has an area of 155,707 km², which is 4.87 per cent of the total area of India, and a coastline of 480 km. In the eastern part of the state lies the coastal plain. It extends from the Subarnarekha river in the north to the Rushikulya river in the south. The State is broadly divided into four geographical regions, i.e. Northern Plateau, Central River Basins, Eastern Hills and Coastal Plains. The climate of the state is characterized by hot summer and cold winter in the interior parts. The state has historically been highly prone to climate change and multiple hazards – mainly cyclones, droughts and ?oods. Natural disasters devastate millions of lives and livelihoods in Odisha each year. More children and women suffer from the effects of natural disasters and this is predicted to worsen as storms ?oods and droughts become more severe and frequent because of climate change.

Climate change may manifest itself as rapid changes in climate in the short term or subtler changes over decades. Generally, climate change is associated with an increasing global temperature. Various climate model projections suggest that by the year 2100, mean global temperature may be 1.1–6.4 °C warmer than in 2010. The difficulty facing livestock is weather extremes, e.g. intense heat waves, ?oods and droughts. In addition to production losses, extreme events also result in livestock death (Gaughan and Cawsell-Smith, 2015). Animals can adapt to hot climates, however the response mechanisms that are helpful for survival may be detrimental to performance. In this article we make an attempt to project the adverse impact of climate change on livestock production. There is a two-way relationship between livestock production and environmental health.

Impact of climate change on livestocks

The potential impacts on livestock include changes in production and quality of feed crop and forage, water availability, animal growth and milk production, diseases, reproduction, and biodiversity. These impacts are primarily due to an increase in temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration, precipitation variation, and a combination of these factors. Temperature affects most of the critical factors for livestock production, such as water availability, animal production, reproduction and health. Forage quantity and quality are affected by a combination of increases in temperature, CO₂ and precipitation variation. Livestock diseases are mainly affected by an increase in temperature and precipitation variation.

Introduction

Climate change has been realised during 1840s when indisputable evidence of former ice ages was obtained. The climate has altered sufficiently in many parts of the world even within the last few decades which will affect the possibilities for agriculture and settlement. Reliable weather records have been kept only during the last hundred years or so, but proxy indicators of past conditions from tree rings, pollen in bog and lake sediments, ice core records of physical and chemical parameters, and ocean foraminifera in sediments provide a wealth of paleoclimatic data. The standard interval adopted by the World Meteorological Organization for climatic statistics is thirty years:1901–30, 1931–60, for example. However, for historical records and proxy indicators of climate, longer, arbitrary time intervals may be necessary to calculate average values. Tree rings and ice cores can give seasonal/annual records, while peat bog and ocean sediments may provide records with only 100- to 1,000-year time resolution. Hence, short-term changes and the true rates of change may, or may not, be identifiable.

The present climatic state is usually described in terms of an average value (arithmetic mean, or the median value in a frequency distribution), a measure of variation about the mean (the standard deviation, or interquartile range), the extreme values, and often the shape of the frequency distribution. A change in climate can occur in several different ways, for example, there may be a shift in the mean level, or a gradual trend in the mean values. The variability may be periodic, quasi-periodic or non-periodic, or alternatively it may show a progressive trend . First, it is important to determine whether such changes are real or whether they are an artefact of changes in instrumentation, observational practices, station location, or the surroundings of the instrumental site, or due to errors in the transcribed data. Even when changes are real, it may be difficult to ascribe them to unique causes because of the complexity of the climate system. Natural variability operates over a wide range of time scales, and superimposed on these natural variations in climate are the effects of human activities.

Introduction

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment reports (IPCC, 2007) suggests that consequently occurring climate extremes are likely to increase the frequency and intensity in the future. In the Indian context, events such as landfall of rare of rarest most intense pre-monsoon Tropical cyclone Fani (2019), back to back landfall of very intense tropical cyclones such as Phalini (2013) and Hudbud (2014), Cyclone Komen (2015), Extreme rainfall events of Kerala (2018 and 2019), Heavy rainfall events of over Northeastern states of India (2019), Cloud burst events of Uttarakhand (2013), Rainfall over Himachal Pradesh (2019), Mumbai Rain fall (2015) and extreme heat wave conditions of 1998, 2015 and many similar type of extreme events are not usual. However, at present there is no unanimity among scientists to exclusively and directly link such extreme weather events to climate change, however based on number of studies and observation data sets it is agreed that the impact of climate change is evident (beyond the natural variability) in many part of the globe including India. In 2019 monsoon season at least 1351 deaths happened to ?oods, heavy rainfall and landslides compared to 1550 for year 2018. In this manuscript, recent research findings related to extreme weather events in the context India are discussed in the following section-2, need for high resolution and long term data sets are emphasized in section-3, followed by recommendations as part of future preparedness, that will not only enable us to address these issues in a robust scientific manner but also provide us strong resilient society to face these extreme weather events in an optimized and effective manner to minimize the loss of lives, properties and socio-economic conditions of citizens.

Introduction

Climate-smart small ruminant production is an approach for transforming and reorienting the small ruminant production under the new realities of climate change. The main objective of climate-smart small ruminant production is to make the production sustainable for national food security, enhancement of resilience, and reduction of greenhouse gasses emission. Climate-smart agriculture is that, which increases the sustainable productivity, enhances resilience, reduce greenhouse gasses (GHG) and boost the achievements of national food security and development goals (FAO, 2013). In India, most of the rural communities earn their livelihood on smallholder livestock production system and they are very much vulnerable to climate change. Therefore, the need of the hour is to address the impact of climate change both in terms of adaptation as well as mitigation perspective (Vemeulen et al., 2013). The increase in population, the higher income, urbanization, and change in dietary preference leading to increased demand for animal products that pressurizing for higher productivity of livestock (Delgado et al., 1999; Thronton et al., 2007).

The mutton production in our country was 399 million Kg in 2012 which will be around 537 million Kg by 2020, and 840 million Kg in 2030 and 1317 million Kg in 2050. However, the requirement for mutton would be 813 million Kg by 2020, 986 million Kg by 2030 and 1408 million Kg in 2050. Similarly, the wool production in the country is 44.7 million Kg in present time (2011-2012), which have to be increased 150, 180 and 200 million Kg in 2020, 2030 and 2050, respectively. But the harsh climatic condition, shrinkage grazing resources, increase in cultivation and industrialization and decline interest of new generation for small ruminant rearing; making a question mark to meet the future demand in the current production trend. The scarcity of resources, impact of climate change and increase demand for mutton has made the traditional coping mechanism less effective (Sidahmed, 2008). Therefore, we need climate-smart sheep and goat production option that can achieve the triple win scenario of increasing productivity, adapting and building resilience to climate change through a reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission (FAO, 2013; Shikuku et al., 2016).

Introduction

In the past few decades, persistent change in climatic variables coupled with global warming lead to the genesis of climatic stress. Currently climatic stress is considered as the most serious ultimatum to livestock’s growth, development, production and reproduction in tropics and subtropics including India. Livestock’s in tropical countries are most commonly affected by the menace of climatic stress. It has been shown that, climatic stress upsets animal’s body homeostasis resulting in grievous decline in livestock’s production and productivity across the world. In general, livestock adapt to the climatic insults via behavioural, physiological, biochemical, metabolic, endocrine and molecular responses. Despite of these thermal adaptation mechanisms, livestock’s witnesses the perils of climatic stress thereby incur major loss in their production and productivity. Therefore, in this changing climatic scenario, it is imperative to rigorously understand and explore the precise mechanism of thermal adaptation to generate climate resilient species which could upsurge the socio-economic status of the farmers as well as the country.

Introduction

Animals have delicate balance of heat production and heat loss, which is maintained by thermoregulatory mechanisms in response to environmental temperature and humidity combinations. When the heat loss is overrun by heat gain, heat stress occurs. During heat stress, increase in the core body temperature due to failure of homeostatic mechanism reduces productivity of the animals below their original genetic potential in growth, milk production, milk constituents and reproduction (Ravagnolo and Misztal, 2002). Impending climate change scenario is a unanimously accepted reality. Increase in the anthropogenic greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄and NO₂) cause radiation leading to excess warming of the earth’s environmental system. According to IPCC, the predicted temperature rises for the end of 21^st century may be in the range of 1.8^oC to 4^oC (IPCC, 2007). The climate change has complex impact on the livestock production. Temperature or heat stress will be one of the major environmental factor to in?uence the health and productivity of livestock population. The least tropically adapted livestock may be severely affected by heat stress. The manage mental and ameliorative practices can deal with the heat stress in short term, however the long term focus of developing genetic heat stress tolerance in livestock population will be a significant and impactful strategy.

Introduction

Climate change has been, and continues to be one of the important causes of low productivity from animal agriculture in tropical countries like India through crop failures, fodder scarcity and increased incidence of endemic animal diseases. It impacts animal agriculture and cause immediate danger for human societies as livelihoods and food production are being adversely affected. Farm ruminant animals contribute to food supply by converting low-value materials, inedible or unpalatable for human, into milk, meat, and eggs and directly contribute to nutritional security. Besides contributing over one-fourth to the agricultural GDP, it provides employment to 18 million people in principal or subsidiary status in India. Nearly two-thirds of farm households are associated with farm animal rearing and 80% of them are small landholders (≤2 ha). As a result of various socio-economic and market driven factors, during the last one decade, large scale transformation took place in both extensive and intensive animal agriculture with regards to type and breed of the animal. A lot of high yielding, low disease resistant and more vulnerable crossbreed animal population have been increased in present animal production systems inorder to meet the market demands. Climate changes could impact severely the economic viability and production of these intensive animal production systems through increased incidence of drought/?oods/cyclones/hailstorms etc. Drought and high ambient temperatures in particular, affects production of milk, meat and egg, reproduction, health of animals and condition of pastures. Changes in pasture and crop biomass availability and quality affect animal production through changes in daily or seasonal feed supplies. Heavy rains and associated ?oods would washout the fodder resources and animals. Recent incidences of severe hail storms are causing brutal injuries to the grazing animals. To mitigate the adverse affects of extreme weather events and cope with changing climate, much precised resilient technologies suitable to local conditions and resources are needed. Hence, one should be critical in recommending smart animal-agriculture technologies in view of much diversified and heterogeneous group of farmers and the resources accessible to them. This will help in sustainable productivity from animal-agriculture and profitability to the farmers even in the era of climate change.

Introduction

The animal husbandry and agriculture are the major resource of income for the farmers and directly affects the economic conditions of farmers. Livestock sector plays a vital role for livelihood food security in India. Buffalo plays an important role in dairy industry and contribute 49 per cent of total milk production in India (BAHS, 2017). Murrah is one of the best buffalo breeds in the world and also widely used for up-gradation of non-descript buffaloes in India. Murrah buffalo have poor thermoregulation mechanism compared to other domestic ruminants in tropical countries and are more prone to heat stress due to very less sweat glands, jet black colour and thin hairs on body surface (Das et al., 1999; Khongdee et al., 2013) which reduce the ability of cutaneous evaporation and largely responsible for its low productivity and consequently reducing the reproductive efficiency (Gudev et al., 2007). India continues to be the largest milk producer in the world since 1997. Milk production has increased from 165.4 million tonnes (2016-17) to 176.4 million tonnes (2017-18) (DAHD, GOI). The demand for milk is increasing at a very fast pace due to exponential population growth and the gap in the production and supply is increasing. Out of 300 million bovines, only 88 million are in milk leaving large unproductive animals including 84 million males (19th Livestock census, 2012). If the gap of production and supply is to be bridged, the large number of constraints that affect reproductive efficiency and productivity of dairy animals must be addressed effectively. One important factor that can contribute to the productivity of animals is qualitative production and quantitative adequacy of semen doses for A.I.

Introduction

Stress represents the reaction of body to stimuli that disturb normal physiological equilibrium or homeostasis, often with detrimental effects (Khansari et al., 1990). Domestic animals undergo various kinds of stress such as physical, nutritional, chemical, psychological and thermal stress (Marai et al., 2007; Nardone et al., 2010). Figure 1 summarises the different types of stressors and their effects on animals.

Introduction

Livestock plays an important role in the sustainable livelihood of poor people of rain-fed agro-ecosystem, because of inherent risk involved in the crop farming due to uncertainty of rainfall and occurrence of recurrent droughts. They provide income and increased economic stability, and often the most important “cash crops” in small-scale mixed farming systems. Livestock sector in India is highly livelihood intensive and most rural households own livestock of one species or the other and earn supplementary incomes from them. Livestock holding is less iniquitous than land holding and income from livestock is more equitably distributed. The sector contributes 25.6 per cent of the value of output at current prices of total value of output in agriculture, fishing & forestry sector and in GDP, it was 4.11% in 2012-13 (19^th livestock census, 2012) therefore, development of the livestock sector is the critical pathway to rural prosperity

As per the 19^th livestock census, the total livestock population consisting of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Horses & Ponies, Mules, Donkeys, Camels, Mithun and Yak in the country is 512.05 million numbers in 2012. The total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) is 299.9 million numbers in 2012 which shows a decline of 1.57% over previous census. In percentage basis distribution of livestock were: 37.28% were cattle, 21.23% buffaloes, 12.71% sheep, 26.40% goats and 2.01% pigs. The corresponding figures as per the 18th Livestock Census were 37.58%, 19.89%, 13.50%, 26.53% and 2.10%. The number of milch animals (in-milk and dry) in cows and buffaloes has increased from 111.09 million to 118.59 million, an increase of 6.75%. The number of animals in milk in cows and buffaloes has increased from 77.04 million to 80.52 million showing a growth of 4.51%. The Female Cattle (Cows) Population has increased by 6.52% over the previous census (2007) and the total number of female cattle in 2012 is 122.9 million numbers. The Female Buffalo population has increased by 7.99% over the previous census and the total number of female buffalo is 92.5 million numbers in 2012. The buffalo population has increased from 105.3 million to 108.7 million showing a growth of 3.19%. The total sheep in the country is 65.06 million numbers in 2012, declined by about 9.07% over census 2007. The Goat population has declined by 3.82% over the previous census and the total Goat in the country is 135.17 million numbers in 2012. The total poultry population in the country has increased by 12.39% over the previous census and the total poultry in the country is 729.2 million numbers in 2012. The total number of animals in milk in the country is 116.77 Million numbers.

Introduction

Climate change is one of the biggest environmental threats to food production, water availability, forest biodiversity and livelihoods. Warming of climate system of the earth is a unanimously accepted reality and probably one of the most prominent challenges for scientists, development workers, policy makers and other relevant stakeholders regarding development and sustainability in international and national arena during past several years. Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPPC) has described climate change as any anthropogenic or naturally occurring alteration in the climate over time. It is widely believed that developing countries such as India will be impacted more severely than developed countries. Climate change is emerging as a big threat to sustainable development of agriculture including animal husbandry and to the livelihood of people. Extreme events such as cold waves, heat waves, ?oods and high intensity single day rainfall events are on increasing trend during the last decade (Dikshit and Birthal, 2010). It is probable that by 2030 the impacts of climate change will be noticeable, although not dramatic and will be largely manifested through changes in pasture growth and quality, and greater inter-annual variability in pasture production. Livestock contribute to climate change by emitting methane through enteric fermentation. But they are also affected by climate change it directly and indirectly, hence affecting their economic and social contributions. Various studies suggest that the changes in pasture growth, composition and production will be dependent on the actual combination of CO₂, temperature and rainfall conditions. Livestock productions under both intensive and extensive systems are subjected to so many stresses, where they undergo different types of physiological adjustments to cope up with stressful conditions. Productions are drastically reduced during stress and require managemental interventions both in terms of optimum nutrition and health care (Soren, 2013).

Profitable broiler production demands dietary nutrients including energy, protein, mineral, vitamins and additives as per the body requirement to meet high growth of the birds. Though energy and protein are the principal nutrients required for growth of birds but the essential role of minerals in poultry production cannot be ignored. Minerals have multifaceted role in the body. They are the components of bones and other soft tissues and play significant role in acid base balance, osmotic pressure regulation and membrane permeability. Trace minerals have major role in functioning of various enzymatic, metabolic and biochemical reaction for effective utilization of nutrients. They are constituents of many proteins involved in metabolism of nutrients, immune defense systems and hormone secretion pathways. Deficiency diseases, metabolic disorders, poor growth rate, low production, low hatchability and low feed efficiency are normally observed on deficiency or imbalance supply of minerals to livestock and poultry.

Along with other trace minerals, selenium is supplemented in broiler ration as an essential trace mineral required for normal growth and production of broiler birds. It was discovered in 1817 by J.J. Berzelius.

Introduction

Climate change is one of the important areas of concern for world to ensure food and nutrition security to the growing population. The impacts of climate change are global but development countries like India are highly vulnerable as large population depends upon agriculture and allied service. As per the latest report, the global average temperature rises is 0.99⁰C (NASA, 2016) since pre-industrial time (1850). The year 2016 ranks as the warmest year, 16 of the 17 warmest years in the 136 years record all have occurred since 2001. The predicted temperature rise for India is in the range 0.5-1.2⁰C by 2020, 0.88-3.16⁰C by 2050 and 1.56-5.44⁰C by the year 2080. Studies in India showed significant negative impacts of climate change, predicted to reduce yields by 4.5 to 9.0%, depending on the magnitude and distribution of warming. Agriculture sector is contributing about 17.4% of India’s GDP, a 4.5-9.0% negative impact on production implies a cost of climate change to be roughly up to 1.5% GDP per year. Therefore, Govt. of India has accorded high priority on research and development to cope with the climate change in general and agriculture and allied sector. The Prime Ministers National Action Plan on Climate Change has Identified Agriculture and allied sector as one of the 8 national Missions. Agriculture and the future of global food security figure very importantly in climate change negotiations. As stated in Article II of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the goal is to ensure stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent “dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”. With this background to meet the challenges of sustaining domestic food production in the face of changing climate and to generate information on adaptation and mitigation in agriculture to contribute to global for a like UNFCCC, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched a flagship network project National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) during XI plan in February 2011, and during XII Plan it is referred as National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA).

Introduction

Climate change and pollution are the two major concerns that retard growth in animal sector particularly in a developing country like India. Pollution is directly contributed by human beings, while the former is also an after effect of continuous abuse of nature and natural resources. Hence these two areas are to be looked into seriously for country’s growth in general and animal production in particular.

Stress Effect

Stress is nothing but inability of an animal to cope with its environment, a phenomenon that is often ends up with a failure to achieve the full genetic potential. Stress may be from any origin and can even be a disease itself. There exists a variety of endocrine regulatory points of stress which limits the efficiency of production and reproduction. A simple transport produces an immediate constant increase in arginine, vasopressin and corticotrophinreleasing hormone secretion in animals. However, adenocorticotrophic hormone reaches a maximum in the first hour, while cortisol is highest during the second hour. Contrastingly, the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal response is delayed occurring only after glucose decreases below a threshold in an insulin treated animal. Negative feedback effects appear to operate mainly at the pituitary level during transport but at the hypothalamus during hypoglycaemia.

The extreme weather events being experienced at a greater frequency now a days are due to accelerated climate change caused mostly due to global warming. Global warming is basically a change in the climatic conditions of the Earth, brought about by a considerable rise in the near-surface temperature of the planet. Earth’s surface and the troposphere become warmer due to absorption of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface by Green House Gases(GHGs). The important green house gases include carbon dioxide(CO₂),methane(CH₄) nitrous oxide(N₂O), chloro-?uoro-carbons(CFCs), ozone(O₃) and water vapour(H₂O). Various climate models predict major changes in our weather patterns, environment, and way of life in absence of efforts for substantial reductions in GHG emissions. The CO₂ gas concentration of atmosphere has increased to 385 ppm as against the normal concentration of 300 ppm. The atmosphere contains only 1 % of the total global carbon pool. The undesirable changes can be reversed by increasing soil and eco system carbon pools, increasing mean resident time(MRT) of sequestered carbon and decreasing GHG emission to atmosphere.

Livestock farming is an important activity to a large population of small and marginal farmers as well as landless agricultural labourers of Tamil Nadu. It also provides employment opportunities for most of the unemployed and underemployed in the rural areas. Tamil Nadu is bounded by the Eastern Ghats on the north, by the Nilgiris, the Anamalai Hills and Kerala on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, and by the Indian Ocean on the south. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area. The land area has been classified into seven agro-climatic zones based on soil characteristics, rainfall distribution, irrigation pattern, cropping pattern and other ecological and social characteristics. Tamil Nadu endowed with 13.97 per cent of recognised breeds of the domestic ruminants (cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats) with 22.55 millions of population (19^thLivestock Census-2012).

Introduction

Climate change represents a threat not only to the existence of individual species, but also to the genetic diversity hidden within them. The finding promises to complicate assessments of how climate change will affect biodiversity, as well as conservationists’ task in preserving it.

Climate change comes as an additional factor affecting a livestock sector that is already highly dynamic and facing many challenges. Important objectives of AnGR management include ensuring that AnGR are effectively deployed to meet these challenges (i.e. are well matched to the production environments in which they are kept) and that the genetic diversity needed to adapt production systems to future changes is maintained. Climate change is likely to create a number of problems in many areas of animal husbandry (housing, feeding, health care, etc.) and threaten the sustainability of many livestock production systems and their associated AnGR. At the same time, many of the specific challenges associated with climate change (high temperatures, disruptions to feed supplies, disease outbreaks, etc,) as well as the general unpredictability it brings to the future of the livestock sector, highlight the importance of retaining diverse genetic options for the future. The upper critical temperature of dairy cattle is lower than other livestock species (Wathes et al.,1983).

Introduction

Diversity connotes multiplicity of variety. In a given ecosystem, diversity refers to presence of number of different species of ?ora and fauna that have ecological niches in agreement with the environment. Scaling up, there exists diversity between different ecosystems. All life forms of ?ora and fauna on earth contains genetic material, that is the repository of an immense amount of genetic information in the form of traits, characteristics, etc. Focusing on the species level, genetic diversity refers to genetic variation that is observed in a population. Thus, genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. This provides in built latitude to the nature and/or the livestock breeders (including farmers) to manoeuvre/ manipulate so as evolve an improved population of desired qualities and traits. Further, genetic diversity is essential because the presence of adequate and appropriate genes in a population will make the species tide over adversaries owing to climate change and other emerging threats like new disease outbreaks. The ‘desired’ divergent gene pool provides the inherent resilient mechanism that equip the species to cope with likely challenging situation.

Over the years, with human interventions, the genetic diversity has been interfered with to meet specific needs; mostly with respect to garnering higher production and productivity. In the process, the diversity has been compromised for achieving the unitary goal. In certain cases, geographical barriers and other bio-physical constraints have also led to loss of diversity within a population. Studies on impact of climate change especially the effect of rise in environmental temperature on milk production of dairy animals indicate that global warming will negatively impact milk production. During 2020, the annual loss in milk production of cattle and buffaloes due to thermal stress will be around 3.2 million tonnes of milk costing more than Rs 5000 Crore at current price. Similarly, there would be prevalence of many emerging diseases including those with zoonotic implications owing to change in climatic conditions. Thus, the present day society is confronted with an imminent development dilemma of ecology vs. economics more specifically genetic diversity vs. higher production. It has led to volume of debates and discussions on the livestock development agenda to be pursued. The apparently con?icting interests has also generated antipathy amongst two schools of development.

Introduction

Birds lack sweat glands; hence non-evaporative cooling mechanism (radiation, conduction and convection) is the major route of heat dissipation within thermoneutral range. Beyond this TNZ, majority of heat loss occurs as insensible heat loss i.e., Panting. Panting is one of the visible responses in poultry during exposure to heat stress associated with considerable energy expenditure. This specialized form of respiration dissipates heat by evaporative cooling at the surface of the mouth and respiratory passage. Panting increase, the loss of CO2 from the lungs, this leads to a reduction in the partial pressure of CO2 and also reduces bicarbonate levels in blood plasma. In turn, the lowered concentration of hydrogen ions leads to rise in plasma pH, a condition generally referred to alkalosis (Daghir, 2009). Birds also respond by reducing their feed intake and thus metabolizable energy (ME) intake to reduce thermo genesis as an adoptive mechanism. If panting fails to prevent their body temperatures from rising, the birds become listless, comatose and soon die due to respiratory, circulatory or electrolyte imbalances (Saif et al., 2003).

Introduction

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC, 2013) emphasized that warming of the climatic system is unequivocal and that anthropogenic warming will continue for centuries to come due to timescales associated with climate processes and feedbacks. While stresses caused by climate change are likely to negatively impact the agricultural and livestock sector and escalate existing small-scale farming challenges; agricultural and livestock productivity and sustainability have to improve to meet the needs of the growing human population (DEA, 2013; Zamykal and Everingham, 2009). Climate change is seen as a major threat to the survival of many species, ecosystems and the sustainability of poultry production systems in many parts of the world. Nevertheless, global demand for poultry products is expected to increase, as a result of the growing human population, and its growing af?uence. The extreme climatic conditions impose various stresses on poultry birds which adversely affect their growth, production and reproduction.

While climate change is a global phenomenon, its negative impacts are more severely felt by poor people in developing countries who rely mostly on the natural resource base for their livelihoods. Moreover, rural poor communities rely greatly for their survival on agriculture and poultry which belong to the most climate-sensitive economic sectors. Climate change is expected to intensify existing problems and create new combinations of risks and shift hazard zones. The incidences of draughts, snow-storms and blizzard like events have risen. The situation is made worst due to factors such as widespread poverty, inequitable land distribution, limited access to capital and technology inadequate infrastructure, long term weather forecasts and inadequate research and extension. Intensive poultry production has much less impact on global warming than organic or free-range production (Van der Sluis, 2007). Seo and Mendelsohn (2006) reported that small farms of poultry are better able to adapt to warming. However, organic egg production needs more energy than non-organic and increases most environmental burdens. The most disadvantageous, from environmental point of view, is litter-free breeding of birds which causes great amounts of liquid manure.

Introduction

The egg production in India is 75 billion and the broiler production is 4.2 million tonnes per annum. The growth rate of layer market is 6-7 percent per annum and broiler market is 8-10 percent per annum. The Indian poultry sector is valued at INR 1 lakh cr or USD 15.38 bn. Approx. 80 percent of egg production is contributed by commercial poultry farms, remaining comes from household/ backyard poultry. Backyard poultry plays a key role in supplementary income generation and family nutrition to the poorest of the poor. It is estimated that there are around 30 million farmers engaged in backyard poultry as per 19^th Livestock Census. Backyard poultry are being practiced for its inherent strengths. Free range birds reared by the farmers have the advantage of small body size, coloured plumage, broodiness to hatch chicks, adaptation to harsh climatic condition, lower diseases and production with least investment. The birds are scavenging in the backyard, supplemented by kitchen waste and are kept in low height houses for shelter using locally available materials. It helps to improve the nutritional status of rural poor and also improve the subsidiary income of the poor people. Such stocks make minimal use of land, labour and capital and integrate well into the backyard. Backyard poultry production system is self-sustaining because of minimal needs and can be afforded by poor people of the rural areas. The high yielding white feathered chicken varieties being reared in the intensive poultry farming are not suitable for backyard / free range backyard poultry farming due to the adverse climatic and high pathogen load prevailing in such rearing practices. Backyard poultry farming is an in-separable part of the poor tribal people and it will continue to be due to its advantages. Although backyard poultry production is not an occupation per se, it often supplements household income, primarily for poor families. Strengthening backyard poultry production may help overcome poverty and malnutrition in impoverished communities. However, the effect of climate change on these birds needs to be studied for its sustenance.

Introduction

There is an ongoing debate on global warming worldwide as it is seriously impacting climate change. The global temperature has been increased by 0.74±0.18°C during the last century and the climate model projections summarized in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report indicate that the global surface temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4°C during the twenty-first century (IPCC, 2007). High ambient temperature is one of the most important stressors to poultry, which has a direct relationship on profitability of chicken meat and egg production. A seasonal problem in many parts of the world, high environmental temperature (35-43^oC in tropical countries) causes economic losses through reducing feed intake while decreasing nutrient utilization, live weight gain, egg production, egg quality and feed efficiency in poultry (Corzo et al., 2003; Panda et al., 2007a; 2008). The ideal temperature for broilers is 10-22^oC for optimum body weight and 15-27^oC for feed efficiency (NRC, 1994). Layers will produce egg constantly in the temperature range of 10-30^oC. Above 30^oC, performance in terms of growth and egg production declines.

Blood Sample collection

Blood samples (5 ml per goat) will be collected aseptically from the jugular vein in a vacutainer tube (B.D. Bioscience, Germany) containing EDTA as anticoagulant and transferred to the laboratory in an ice box.

Isolation of Genomic DNA

The Genomic DNA will be isolated from the blood samples by ‘Phenol: chloroform isolation’ method as described by Sambrook and Russel (2001). The steps for isolation of genomic DNA are as follows:

Introduction

Poultry production is one of the fastest growing sectors of livestock industry in developing countries. Environmental variation is one of the major factors that affect sustainability of poultry production systems in tropical climate (Sinha et al., 2017a). Adverse climatic stress declines the production performance of chicken which causes high economic loss to the enterprises as well as the farmers. Heat stress has an adverse effect on egg production, egg weight and shell quality of laying hen (Whitehead et al., 1998). Climatic variables like temperature, humidity, radiation and wind speed that directly affect the mechanism of thermoregulation and rates of heat exchange by all animals (NRC, 2001). Heat stress is a major factor that decreases productivity and reproductive efficiency of livestock due to lower feed intake and negative energy balance (De Rensis and Scaramuzzi, 2003). Moreover, it badly affect the production due to decline feed digestibility such as proteins, fats, starch (Bonnet et al., 1997). In addition, the acute heat stress drastically decreases the reproductive performance of hens due to alterations in acid-base balance and ion exchange mechanism (Mahmoud et al., 1996). Climate change in?uences the emergence of disease and their transmission due to increases vectors, pathogens. All the above effects impact a huge economic loss to the farmers as well as the country.