eChapters

1. Introduction

Psyohrometrio is the study thermal and physical properties of gas-vapour mixtures. Ambient air is the mixture of dry air and water vapour and some pollutants. The moisture and pollutant content vary from place to place. The amount of pollutant and water vapour decrease with increase in the altitude. The air is completely dry above 10 km altitude. In many unit operations moist air is required and properties of air changes with temperature and pressure. The pollutants has to be removed before using moist air as a process air either by filtration or circulation. So it is necessary to determine the amount of water present in the air and effect of different unit operation on thermal properties and change in the heat and moisture content of mixture.The International Joint Committee of psychrometric data have fixed the composition of dry by mole fraction as: Oxygen: 0.2095, Nitrogen: 0.7803, Argon: 0.0093, Carbon dioxide: 0.0003. The following are the properties of the dry air

Molecular weight    28.966

Introduction

The digestive system of the birds has modifications to facilitate the easy flight. Length of intestine in birds is relatively shorter compared to mammals. Also, they lack teeth and jaw muscles which are replaced with light weight beak. Food grains are swallowed as whole and ground in the gizzard with the help of powerful muscles. In the mouth, tongue is used to manipulate the food and also aids in swallowing the food. Chickens have as many as 300 taste buds. The elementary system in birds consists of gastro intestinal tract and the accessory glands, the course of the elementary starts with Mouth, oesophagus, crop, proventriculus (glandular/true stomach), gizzard (mascular stomach), small intestine (duodenum, Jejenum, ileum), large intestine (colon and caeca) which lastly opens into cloaca. For fast growing poultry species elementary system is very important. It plays vital role in digestion, absorption and also provides protective immunity. Poultry intestines harbours diversified microflora which aids in enhanced availability of nutrients to the bird. Intestinal wall contains four layers: mucosal, submucosal, muscle tunic, and the serosal layer. As intestine is involved in important functions like digestion & immunity, any change in intestinal integrity / microflora balance impacts the bird performance in terms of body weight gain in broilers and egg number in layers. Some bacteria, viruses and also fungi produce different diseases / conditions in poultry birds. The ban on the use of antimicrobial growth promoters has pushed poultry producers from use of AGP’s to alternatives to AGP’s such as prebiotics, probiotics, essential oils and some herbals. Maintaining good gut health in the absence of AGP’s and anticoccidial drugs is a challenging situation for the poultry farmers across the globe. Poultry gut contains diverse community of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. The recent data suggests that gastrointestinal tract of a broiler chicken colonizes by an estimated 600 – 800 species of bacteria. The abundance and diversity of microbiota varies along the GI tract. After the hatch GI tract colonizes within 3-4 days. Small intestine of broilers mainly contains lactobacilli although enterococci, E.coli, eubacteria, clostridia, propionibacteria and fusobacteria can be found.

Heart of bovine, caprine, equine, canine and feline is a four chambered organ having left and right atrium, left and right ventricles, mitral valve, tricuspid valve, aortic valve, pulmonary valve, arteries, arterioles, veins and venules. Heart starts its functioning even before birth and continues till death. Its pumping action helps in providing nutrients as well as oxygen to all organs and parts of the body and to remove the waste products of the metabolism from the different organs of the body. Malfunctioning of the heart (pumping action and /or current generation and conduction) adversely affects nutrient and oxygen availability to organs and removal of waste products from the body lowering the quality of life and making the survival reasonably difficult. Heart functioning can be examined through physical examination of the heart such as general inspection (looking for abducted elbow, jugular distension or pulse, edema of ventral abdomen or limbs, tachypnea /dyspnea), evaluations of vitals (temperature, pulse, respiration,

Abstract

Nanotechnology is an emerging field that offers various potential applications in the areas of agriculture, health and medicine. Recent advances in the design and synthesis of nano-materials aids for developing sophisticated nano-devices for clinical research and practice. Applications of nano materials in medicine includes disease diagnosis, early prognosis, detection of pathogens, tumor detection, tissue engineering, target  specific drug delivery,  development of  biomaterials  for oral health  and understanding of cellular mechanisms in live cells using molecular imaging.

Livestock farming is an integral part of crop farming and contributes substantially to household nutritional security and poverty alleviation through increased household income. Indian agriculture is an economic symbiosis of crop and livestock production with cattle as the foundation. Dairy animals produce milk by converting the crop residues and by products from crops which otherwise would be wasted. Dairy sector contributes by way of cash income, drought power and manure. Livestock provides for human needs by way of food, fibre, fuel, fertilizer, skin and traction. India has the largest livestock populations in the world. It has 57 per cent of the world’s buffalo population and 16 per cent of the cattle population. It ranks first in respect of cattle and buffalo population, third in sheep and second in goat population in the world. 70 per cent of the livestock are owned by 67 per cent of small and marginal farmers. 76 per cent of the milk is produced by weaker sections of society. Out of total livestock in the country, 37.28 per cent are cattle, 21.29 per cent are buffaloes, 12.71 per cent are sheep, 2640 per cent are goats and only 2.01 per cent are pigs. All other animals are less than 0.37 per cent of the total livestock. The species-wise breakup of livestock population in India (Table 16.1)

In this era of molecular markers in genetic studies, genome analysis encompasses several stages of increasing resolution and sophistication, leading to the generation of high resolution chromosome maps. Since the entire plant kingdom cannot be covered under sequencing projects, molecular markers and their correlation to phenotypes provide us with requisite landmarks for elucidation of genetic variation.

A molecular marker is a site of heterozygosity for some type of DNA variation. Such a DNA marker in mapping analysis is analogous to a conventional heterozygous allelic pair. When they are used for mapping the genome, the identity of this DNA fragment is not important, but is simply used as a reference point to arrange and order the genetic information along the length of a chromosome. The molecular markers provide landmarks along the length of chromosome that facilitate the manipulation of chromosome segments in breeding and chromosome engineering programs.

“Terra”per se is an extraordinarily complex, messy geophysical system with dozens of variables, most of which change in response to one another. The basic proposition behind the science of climate change is also rooted in the floral and faunal cohabiting with the Homo sapiens. Livestock and related fodder cultivation and the green waste generated in a farming enterprise are of extreme significance when we ponder over the climate change. Confusion and complacency reigns the thinking process and planning process related to climate change. Confusion in the sense, that risk communication in this regard is so placid. Complacency, we say due to the lackadaisical attitude of our policy makers. To make it very plain, fodder production sector as well as farm sector will suffer the most in Kerala for want of scientific thinking, planning and execution.

Introduction

All the worldwide cuisines generally rely on plant-based edible oils as the main cooking ingredient due to their unique chemical composition, further presence of unsaturated fatty acids in plant-based oils makes it a healthy complement in the diet. Lipids are known to provide almost double calories than carbohydrates. For ages, vegetable oils have contributed maximally to our nutrition and economics, but their authenticity is still a considerable issue (Firestone and Reina, 1996) as for more profitability fraudulent blends lower grade oils to high-grade expensive oils.

Livestock have the potential to be transformative; by enhancing food and nutrition security and providing the income to pay for education and for other needs, livestock can transform lives of many (Jimmy Smith et al., 2013). The projected growth of population is 9.6 billion in the year 2050 from the current population of 7.2billion (Gerber et al, FAO, 2013). The world demand for milk and meat in 2050 is expected to expand 58 and 73% respectively from their demand levels in 2010 (FAO, 2011). Nevertheless, the growth animal agriculture is not on par with the demand. Today, in a world of limited resources, in the face of climate change and a rising world population, a major issue is global food security (Augustine et al 2013). The key inferences of the latest approved summary for policymakers by the IPCC (2013) on climate change are 1). Warming of climate system is unequivocal and will continue beyond 2100. Global surface temperature change for the end of the 21st century is expected to exceed 1.5°C relative to 1850 to 1900 for almost all RCP scenarios 2). It is very likely that frequency of heat waves and heavy precipitation events have increased 3).

Foot-and-Mouth Disease

Loeffler and Frosch in 1897. Apthovirus of Picornaviridae. Strain O, A, C, Asia-1, SAT-1, 2, 3.

Cattle as Indicator host, Pig as amplifier, Sheep as maintenance host.

Musculature of heart in calves will have striped appearance termed as TIGER HEART.

Panting is common feature or sequel following FMD due to disturb endocrine function.

Preferred cell line for virus isolation in BHK-21.

Introduction

In the midst of the rapid speed of global change and in a highly competitive and risky business situation, the knowledgeable consumer gains power, and the market shift towards quick product creation. Innovation has emerged as a crucial component of success, particularly for new businesses, involving the development of economic productivity and operational and working producers (Baron and Tang, 2011). The systematic and planned transformation of a person into an entrepreneur is known as entrepreneurial development. The process of making an entrepreneur involves teaching everyday people how to be business owners, as well as imparting the necessary information, management, technical, financial, and marketing abilities. The definition of the entrepreneurial developmentprograme is a course created to assist a person in enhancing their entrepreneurial drive and obtaining the knowledge and talents required to carry out their position as an entrepreneur successfully (Kumari, 2014).

This chapter introduces non-timber forest products (NTFPs) as important biological resources supporting rural livelihoods, local economies, and forest-dependent communities. It examines the definition, scope, classification, diversity, and importance of NTFPs in India. The chapter also discusses value chains, market dynamics, trade, sectoral challenges, and constraints affecting their sustainable utilization. Particular attention is given to conservation, policy frameworks, community livelihoods, and a case study of NTFPs in Maharashtra. The chapter emphasizes the need to balance resource utilization with sustainable forest management and biodiversity conservation.

SUMMARY

Conventional agriculture has been contributing significantly to several modern day environmental problems like global climate change, soil degradation, water pollution, biodiversity loss etc. directly or indirectly. Organic agriculture has been identified as one of the eco-friendly agriculture techniques and is being promoted worldwide to meet the increasing demand for organic products and conserve the natural eco-systems. It helps mitigating climate change through reduced emission of green house gases (GHGs), greater C sequestration and less use of fossil fuel. Besides, it has been found helpful to reduce export of harmful agro-chemicals to water bodies, biodiversity conservation, restoring soil health etc. Organic agriculture can help to meet the objectives of sustainable and eco-friendly agriculture.

Climate change has become a global threat as its impact is evident on the Earth. In the coming decades,the severity of climate change is expected to aggravate the ecosystem. Due to its vulnerable ecosystem and geographical location, the North eastern region (NER)of India that is home to about 40 million people is considered as one of the most climate sensitive areas in the country. The NER is among India’s least developed region andscarce information is available on the impact of climate change in this region. However, initial scientific research and field observations confirm that the region is suffering from the impacts of climate change already. The region comprising 0.26 million km2area occupying 8% of nation’s territoryconsists of the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. These states consist of a part of the east Himalayan region, which extends eastwards from Arunachal Pradesh to the Darjeeling hills of West Bengal. The entire region is a part of Indo-Burma and Himalayan hotspots i.e. characterized by rich biodiversity, heavy precipitation and high seismicity.

The harmony between human beings and plants is one of the evergreen reasons that maintains and supports life on earth. This fact clearly explains why any hazard to the life of plants prominently affects man. One important feature distinguishing plants from other complex multicellular organisms is that plants are sessile and thus have to endure environmental challenges (Zhu, 2001).

Crop productivity is limited by stress factors. The stresses which pose major threats to survival of plants belong to two categories- abiotic and biotic stress. Drought, salinity, high or low temperatures, light, deficient or excess nutrients, heavy metals, pollutants etc., either individually or in combination causes abiotic stresses. Biotic stress refers to any stress provided by living organisms, be it unicellular or multicellular. Plants facing a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses are able to protect themselves by means of tolerance mechanisms which result from changes at the molecular level. They are often confronted by a multitude of stresses in their natural environment. To overcome this, plants have evolved various defence strategies, which involve comprehensive reprogramming of the cellular metabolism.

Introduction

Coffee is a beverage made from the roasted and ground seeds of the African tropical evergreen coffee plant. Coffee is one of the world’s three most popular beverages (together with water and tea), as well as one of the most profitable international commodities, and it is the world’s second most marketed product after petroleum (Myhrvold, 2021).Coffee is a popular beverage that is enjoyed around the world for its taste, health benefits, and ability to enhance physical performance (Simkin, 2008).

1. Introduction: Setting the Stage for GLP in Artificial Insemination
Artificial Insemination (AI) stands as a cornerstone technology in modern animal agriculture, playing a pivotal role in the genetic enhancement of livestock across a diverse range of species. This technique, particularly prevalent in cattle and swine, allows for the widespread dissemination of superior genetic traits from carefully selected sires, leading to significant improvements in productivity, such as increased milk yield in dairy cattle and enhanced growth rates in beef cattle. Beyond genetic advancement, AI offers considerable advantages in disease management by mitigating the risks associated with natural mating, thereby controlling the transmission of reproductive tract infections. Furthermore, AI provides economic benefits to livestock producers by reducing the need to maintain live bulls, which require substantial resources, and by offering access to a broader spectrum of genetics than would be feasible through natural service alone. The application of AI is not limited to traditional livestock; it is increasingly employed in the breeding of horses and smaller ruminants, as well as in the management of pet populations, indicating its growing importance in animal reproduction across various sectors. The expanding scope of AI underscores the necessity for robust quality control measures to ensure its efficacy and safety across different animal species and production systems. The success of any AI program is intrinsically linked to the quality of the semen used, making the operational standards of AI laboratories paramount. Optimal conception rates rely on semen with high viability, motility, and morphological integrity, which can be compromised by inadequate handling and unsanitary 130 Concepts of Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) conditions during collection, processing, storage, and insemination. Poor semen management can lead to reduced fertility and the potential spread of diseases, thereby undermining the benefits of AI. To ensure consistent and successful outcomes, standardized procedures throughout the AI process are essential, providing a framework for optimizing techniques and minimizing the risk of errors. In this context, Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) emerges as a critical quality paradigm. Defined as a managerial quality control system, GLP encompasses the organizational processes and the conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, archived, and reported. While traditionally applied to the safety testing of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, the core principles of GLP, with their emphasis on systematic processes, controlled conditions, and rigorous data management, hold significant relevance for ensuring the quality and reliability of operations within animal AI laboratories. The genesis of GLP regulations in response to concerns about the integrity and consistency of scientific data further underscores its fundamental importance in any laboratory setting where the trustworthiness of results is paramount. This report aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the GLP paradigm within the context of animal AI laboratories. Its objectives include defining GLP and its core principles, investigating the specific application of these principles in the various stages of animal AI, exploring the benefits and challenges associated with GLP implementation, reviewing relevant regulatory guidelines and standards across different regions, analyzing the impact of GLP adherence on AI techniques and outcomes, identifying effective data representation strategies, comparing the operational differences between GLP and non-GLP compliant laboratories, and discussing emerging trends and future perspectives on the role of GLP in advancing the field.

Besides edapho-climatic constraints in the arid region, availability of genuine planting materials at the doorsteps of the farmer’s is one of the major challenges that come in the way of horticultural development at commercial venture. Though, establishment of nursery is considered as remunerative farming enterprise if managed properly, in arid region it is still confined in the vicinity of big cities. It is also interesting to reveal that in the state like Rajasthan, most of the private nursery men are not producing planting materials in their nurseries except for the fruits like ber, lasoda and  kinnow instead they are purchasing planting materials from the other states in bulk and selling them on higher rate to the farmers of the state. The main reasons for poor development of nursery in the arid region are; unfavorable edapho-climatic conditions and poor knowledge about innovations made in recent past for nursery management. Keeping these facts in view, there is a need to develop a long chain of hitech-nurseries coupled with Human Resource Development for mass multiplication of quality planting materials for fulfilling the demand of end users. Production of quality planting material is directly link with productivity of fruit crops (Bose et al., 1998; Brison and Adriance, 2000).

The climatic changes and global warming may impact the economic viability of livestock production systems in a significant manner. The possible consequences of increased ambient temperature on the livestock include reduced feed intake, reduced weight gains, lower milk production and lower conception rates during summer periods. Though animals can, to some extent, adapt to higher temperatures with prolonged exposure, the production losses are likely to be exhibited in response to higher temperature events. However, potential direct and indirect impacts of climate change on livestock production have not yet been thoroughly explored. Changes in availability and quality of fodder have also been identified as one of the major impacts of climate changes leading to lowered productivity of livestock species. Climate change could also affect the distribution of vector-borne livestock diseases. These changes occur as a result of shifts in the geographical ranges of ticks, mosquitoes, flies and other vectors.

Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. ) is one of the ancient and common fruits of the country. It is a drought hardy fruit tree and can grow successfully even under harsh climatic conditions. Ber is well known for its ability to thrive under adverse conditions of salinity, drought and poor marginal soils. However, for good tree’s growth and yield, deep sandy loam soils with neutral or slightly alkaline reaction and good drainage are most suitable. It is grown throughout the country especially in arid and semi- arid parts. However, it is mainly grown in western parts of Rajasthan where rainfall is less and erratic (Pareek et al, 2002). In addition to Rajasthan state, it is cultivated in other states like U.P., Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, A.P., Gujarat, M.P., Chhatisgarh, Haryana, Punjab and Bihar.