eChapters

Abstract

The global economic burden due to zoonotic diseases is very high. According to a recent World Bank estimate, the economic burden due to six of the zoonotic diseases that have occurred in specific countries between 1997 and 2009 is estimated to be US$80 billion. In a worst-case scenario, potential losses from a pandemic influenza outbreak could be US$3 trillion, which is equivalent to 5% of the global GDP. Zoonotic diseases continue to represent an important health hazard in most parts of the world. More than 200 zoonotic diseases have been described, caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses, fungi and unconventional agents (e.g. prions). About 75 percent of the new diseases that have affected humans over the past ten years are caused by pathogens originating from animals or from products of animal origin. Many of these diseases have the potential to spread by various means over long distances and to become global problems. India contributes to substantial portion of the global burden of endemic zoonoses and is one of the several ‘EID hotspots’. The quality and safety of food supplies are put at risk by demands for more, cheaper food, driven by growing population and increasing urbanization, combined with a lack of resources to deal with issues related to food safety and lower or less rigorously enforced regulatory standards add to spread of zoonotic diseases. Human and financial resources that are dedicated by national authorities to the support of regulatory and non-regulatory food safety programs generally fall well short of needs. Commonly, many of the resources available are used for quality control of food for export, rather than products for domestic consumption, leaving the domestic market more vulnerable to unacceptable levels of food safety hazards, thus adding to the problem. In many developing countries, there is a substantial informal market that generally escapes any food safety controls. The successful control of zoonoses is possible if acceptable standards of life and social welfare are observed in developing country like India. Close cooperation and interaction between veterinarians, health physicians and public health operators, agriculturists and ecologists is thus necessary via one health approach strategy facilitating interdisciplinary collaborations and communications in all aspects of health care for humans, animals and the environment.

3.1 Introduction

Irrigation water that is supplied to crop fields is defined by a term commonly called as discharge which is also called as rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time. It can be expressed as cubic metre per second (cumec), cubic feet per second (cusec), litre per sec (lps) etc. one cumec is equivalent to 35.5 cusecs or 1000 lps. The measurement of discharge is very important in everyday life starting from deciding the amount of irrigation to be supplied to a crop at a particular growth stage, or amount of water supply for domestic and industrial uses, for flood control and power generation etc. It plays a vital role in water resources planning.

3.2 Methods of Discharge Measurement

The various methods of discharge measurement can be broadly classified into the following types: (i) volume method of discharge measurement (ii) flow measuring structures such as orifices, mouthpieces, flumes and weirs.

John H. Davis of Harvard University first used the term agribusiness in 1955. In 1980s it was given three connotations: (1) synonymous with term agriculture, (2) synonymous with agricultural economics and (3) a modified concept of agriculture, excluding farming, or the off-farm aspects of agriculture.

Agribusiness is defined as all business enterprises or sells to farmers/traders/consumers. The transaction may involve either an input or a produce or service and encompasses items such as:

• Productive resources (feed, seed, fertilizer, equipment, energy, pesticides, machinery, etc.)
• Agricultural commodities –(raw and processed commodities of food and fiber)
• Facilitative services (credit, insurance, marketing, storage, processing, transportation, packing, distribution, consultancy, soil testing etc.).

Introduction

Definition of ‘urban’ areas varies from country to country. Consequently, it is difficult to provide a universally acceptable meaning of the term. The difficulty has been summarised by UN (1998) as follows: “because of national differences in the characteristics that distinguish urban from rural areas, the distinction between urban and rural population is not amenable to a single definition that would be applicable to all countries” (UN, 1998). In many cases the divide between a rural and an urban area is based on the minimum population, but the number varies widely between the countries, e.g., 200 in Iceland, 2000 in some countries of West Asia, 5000 in India, and 10000 in Italy! Despite this challenge, most towns and cities are historical phenomena and have their defined administrative boundaries for services and other purposes, including municipalities. These places straight away qualify as the urban centres.

In India, the word has been defined by the Census of India (2001) as: “(a) All statutory places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc.; (b) A place satisfying the following three criteria simultaneously: (i) a minimum population of 5,000; (ii) at least 75 per cent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and (iii) a density of population of at least 400 per sq. km (1,000 per sq. mile).” This definition was adopted for the 2011 Census.

The need for organic farming in India arises from the unsustainability of agriculture production and the damage caused to ecology through the conventional farming practices. The present system of agriculture which we call ‘conventional+’ and practiced the world over evolved in the western nations as a product of their socio-economic environment which promoted an over riding quest for accumulation of wealth. This method of farming adopted by other countries is inherently self destructive and unsustainable.

The world’s population is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, putting unprecedented pressure on the agricultural sector to produce more food while minimizing its environmental footprint. However, the increasing frequency and severity of climate-related disasters, such as droughts, floods, and heat waves, pose significant challenges to agricultural productivity and food security. To address these challenges, farmers, policymakers, and agricultural experts must adopt innovative approaches that integrate climate science, agricultural meteorology, and cutting-edge technologies to generate actionable farming intelligence. Climate science and agricultural meteorology provide critical insights into the complex relationships between weather patterns, climate variability, and agricultural productivity. By incorporating these disciplines into farming practices, farmers can enhance crop yields, reduce climate-related risks, promote sustainable agriculture, and improve decision-making. Understanding weather patterns and climate trends enables farmers to optimize planting dates, irrigation schedules, and harvest times, leading to improved crop yields and reduced losses. Access to accurate and reliable climate information helps farmers anticipate and prepare for climaterelated disasters, minimizing damage to crops and livestock. Climate science and agricultural meteorology also inform farmers about the most effective strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, conserving water, and maintaining soil health. The integration of climate science, agricultural meteorology, and cutting-edge technologies is revolutionizing the agricultural sector. Artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms analyze large datasets, including climate information, soil moisture levels, and crop health, to provide insights on optimal farming practices. Internet of Things (IoT) sensors and connected devices monitor weather patterns, soil conditions, and crop health in real-time, enabling farmers to respond promptly to changing conditions. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) mapping and spatial analysis help farmers understand the spatial distribution of climate-related risks and opportunities, informing decision-making at the farm level (Fig. 3.1).

Introduction

India being a developing nation is trying to reach a balance in ever increasing population with marginal increase in crop production. There occurred a bigbang in crop production during the green revolution era however this also resulted in creation of infertile, barren lands with low chemical nutrient input responsive soils. Soil fertility is the major constraint among resource poor Indian farmers as lesser benefits are harnessed by use of newer agricultural protocols/tools/products viz improved varieties, productive technology from less fertile soils. There is dire need for looking for the alternative technologies of food or crop production to satiate the hunger of burgeoning Indian population. Today there is enormous emphasis on the conservation facets of soil fertility and crop productivity which are the instrumental philosophies in sustainable agriculture. Biofertilizers are the cost effective, ecofriendly and renewable resource of plant nutrients that could well supplement the use of already functional and popular chemical fertilizers for obtaining increase in crop yield without over hazardous impacts on various facets of soil chemistry, fertility and microbial diversity to attain sustainable agricultural system.

Abstract

In a developing country like India with exploding population pressure and shrinking availability of resources per capita, agricultural intensification maintain soil health is the only way to solve hunger and poverty. Soil is a fundamental resource base for agricultural production systems. Besides being primary medium for crop growth, soil functions to sustain crop productivity, maintain environmental quality and provide for plant, animal and human health. Soil organic matter (SOM) content is frequently identified as a primary attributes of soil quality assessment. It is evident that SOM influences various soil physical,chemical and biological properties. Besides, SOM serves as a slow release reserviour for macro-, secondary and micronutrients to plants.

Abstract

Doubling the farmers’ income”, implies a 100 per cent growth of the current level of income of the farmers within a specific time frame, through multifaceted efforts of technological advancements in agriculture, policy formulation/ implementation, and efficient market system. The idea of doubling the farmers’ income during seven year period has by many experts been deemed impractical owing to the fact that a consistent annual growth rate of 14.86 per cent would be required in agricultural sector to double its GDP which has never had any history in the Indian agriculture. Some experts point out the possibility of success through appropriate technological intervention and viable government policies specific for each of the agro ecological zones of the nation. Increase in the farmer’s income doesn’t imply increase in nominal income through excessive production, but increase in real income, taking inflation into account. Production technologies, their use and impact are important factors to focus on doubling the farmers’ income. These technologies are already available across all the regions of the country but their adoption remains a problem to discuss always and partial adoption of the technological package can never be expected to get the desired results on ground. The results are suggestive of the pent up need to focus on the extension support on end-to-end approach from production to marketing with appropriate facilitation for inputs, insurance, credit, storage, marketing facilities etc. However, it would need involvement of all the stakeholders to come up on board to pursue this goal.

Introduction

The procedure of making or building casting in the sand mould cavity or any other material is known as a foundry. This is the cheapest method of shaping the metal. Foundry exercise offers the technique of creating casting in moulds shaped in both sand or different material. A foundry is a manufacturing plant where castings are created by softening metal, emptying fluid metal into a shape, then, at that point, permitting it to harden. Regardless of whether we have not at any time been to a foundry or even know what one resembles, we are encircled by the metal castings. There is a decent possibility that we are perusing this under 10 feet from one.

Moulding

9.2. Causes of Post-Harvest Losses (A) Primary Causes: (B) Secondary Causes: • Mechanical injury. • State of maturity. • Physio-biochemical losses. • Time of harvesting. • Microbial losses. • Storage facilities. • Physical losses. • Bruishing caused due to transportation and distribution. 9.3. Control of Post-Harvest Losses The extent of post harvest losses in vegetables can be minimized by • Careful harvesting. • Harvesting of vegetables at the right stage of maturity. • Proper sorting, grading and packing. • Careful transportation and distribution. • Adequate and suitable storage facilities. • Pre and post harvest treatment

Introduction

Phenolic compounds have been shown to be of importance in regulation of plant growth, development and metabolism, therefore now they are not considered as passive by products of any catabolic or anabolic processes. Salicylic acid is one of them and it is a naturally occurring phenolic which has received much attention due to its association with economically important plant responses to disease and other stresses (Raskin, 1992; Borsani et al., 2001; Clarke et al., 2004). Centuries before medical scientists had identified numerous therapeutic effects of salicylates. Leaves and barks of willow tree were used by women as a pain reliever during child birth in 4th century B.C. It also cured aches and fevers. Due to a number of curative properties of willow bark, in 1828 Jahann Buchner, a scientist from Munich had isolated a small amount of silicin - a salicylic alcohol glucoside, the major salicylate in willow bark. In 1838, Rafaela Piria had given the name salicylic acid (SA), from the Latin salix, a willow tree. Further during 19th century SA and other salicylates, mainly methyl esters and glucosides easily convert to SA, isolated from a number of plants. Salicylic acid has an aromatic ring which bears a hydroxyl group or its functional derivative (Fig. 1).

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is the leading oilseed crop in the world. Its area and production are far ahead of other oilseeds at the global level (Table 1). The commercial cultivation of this crop in India started in the early 1970’s. Within a span of 4 decades its spread has been phenomenal and today it occupies around 9.67 million hectares with a production of about 10.22 million with an average productivity of around 1006 kg ha^-1 (DSR, 2010) (Table 2). It is now the fourth largest among field crops after rice, wheat and maize (GOI, 2007) in India and has become the leading oil seed crop surpassing groundnut and mustard and rapeseed. It is contributing nearly 37% to the total oilseeds produced in India. The central India comprising the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan account for more than 95% of the total area under this crop. Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh etc account or the bulk ofthe rest ofthe area. It is predominantly a rainfed crop with only about 3% of the total area getting some assured irrigation facility. Further, it is concentrated in areas which receive lesser rainfall in its early vegetative phase. A large number of crops have been replaced by soybean to a variable extent in its march towards achieving its present position. Badal et al. (2000) have reported that a large number farmers switched over to this crop from sorghum, groundnut, maize, cotton etc in the state of Madhya Pradesh owing to greater yield potential even under adverse conditions (Table 3). Further, it has become an integral part of several cropping systems including both intercropping and-sequential cropping systems in different parts of the country.

2.1 Introduction

Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world. It is considered as ‘King of Temperate Fruits’. Apple is popular because of its delicious taste and pleasant aroma. It is rich in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous, iron, and vitamin B6. Apple is rich in anti-oxidant, flavonoids and dietary fibre. The phytonutrients and anti-oxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancer, hypertension, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is mainly used for table purpose. The various processed products are prepared from fruits like juice, jelly, candy, preserve, canned slice, wine, concentrated juice and cider.

Abstract

Greenhouse vegetable cultivation is gaining popularity for reasons such as high productivity of quality produce round the year with enhanced input use efficiency. As agriculture has a major share in our economy and if India has to emerge as an economic power in the world, the productivity should substantially increase from the present levels. We need a new and effective technology which can constantly improve the productivity, profitability and sustainability of our major farming systems. One such technology is the green house vegetable production technology. At Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangaluru, research on greenhouse vegetable production is in progress since the year 2000, resulting in the development of many technologies which have made possible to realize high yield levels in tomato, capsicum and cucurbits that are comparable to international standards of greenhouse productivity. Tomato and bell pepper yields have touched 300 tonnes and 200tonnes/ha/year, respectively and cucurbits 80 to 100 tonnes/ha/crop of 3 months. Vegetable cultivation in cost effective greenhouse is a technical reality in India, which is being adopted by resourceful farmers in and around big towns and cities as a peri-urban horticultural system. Such production systems have not only extended the growing season of vegetables and made their availability round the year but also opened the possibilities of growing new vegetables such as coloured capsicums, cherry tomatoes, seedless watermelons, icebox melons, sweet cucumbers, coloured cabbage, etc., besides tomato, cucumber, eggplant and climbing beans. Quality seedling production is one more important greenhouse activity in the present agricultural scenario as more and more F₁ hybrids are being adopted by the farmers.

Introduction

Resource management balances human needs with environmental preservation, focusing on sustainable development, responsible use, and conservation of natural resources. It involves environmental stewardship, economic efficiency, and social equity, ensuring equitable access for all societal segments while meeting present and future demands (Study Smarter, N.D; Mohd Akhter Ali et al., 2023).

There are specific areas such as water, soil, forests, waste, and sustainable harvesting practices. Each area presents unique challenges and opportunities, requiring tailored strategies and interventions to promote sustainability. The interplay between human activities, environmental impacts, and socio economic dynamics through the lens of resource management highlights the need for sustainable practices that balance development with ecological preservation, ensuring equitable resource distribution and long-term economic stability. Emphasis is placed on holistic approaches, participatory decision making, and capacity building to enhance resource governance and promote sustainable practices.

Abstract

Agricultural production is often limited by low phosphorus (P) availability. In developing countries, which have limited access to P fertiliser, there is a need to develop plants that are more efficient at low soil P. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbioses are widespread in the plant kingdom and contribute significantly to plant P nutrition and growth in natural ecosystems. Production and application of these beneficial fungi for agricultural purposes has grown over the last decades worldwide. However, the necessity of AM inoculum production via a host plant is still an obstacle to ample utilization of AM fungi in agricultural crops. The present article deals with the basic and applied aspects of AM research and its role in sustainable agriculture.

Vegetable seed cleaning and processing are two important aspects of seed post-harvest management. These steps are very essential to maintain the quality of the seed till its next sowing season. The quality of seed produced is dependent on the moisture content and various admixtures. To provide quality seed to farmers, it is very essential to clean seed to its maximum quality. The seed quality attributes like moisture, free water activity, to be controlled in germination, vigor and viability are upgraded during seed cleaning.

Seed cleaning is the term used as a part of processing means separation of admixtures from a particular seed lot. The physical characters like bigger clods, sand, soil, chaffy material, inert matter etc. will be removed during seed cleaning. Seed processing on the other hand is relatively broad term referring to the process of removal of dockage in a seed lot and preparation of seed for marketing is called seed processing. The price and quality of seed is inversely related to dockage, which should not exceed a maximum level permitted for different crops for seed certification. Due to the operation of processing the level of heterogeneity of seed lot gets narrowed down. The heterogeneity occurs in a seed lot due to following reasons:

Sun is the prime source of energy injected into the earth’s atmosphere. The sun is the nearest star to the earth. It is a hot ball of glowing gases at the heart of the solar system. Its radiant energy is practically the only energy source to the earth. Very small and insignificant quantities of energy are available from other sources such as the interior of the earth, the moon, and other stars. Without the sun’s intense energy and heat, there would be no life on earth.

The mean distance of the sun from the earth, also known as one astronomical unit (1 AU), is approximately 1.496 × 10⁸ km, though the distance varies as the earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit. At this average distance, light travels from the sun to earth in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds. The energy of the sunlight supports almost all life on earth by photosynthesis, and drives earth’s climate and weather. The minimum sun-earth distance is about 0.983 AU and the maximum is approximately 1.017 AU. The earth is at its closest point to the sun (perihelion) on around January 3 and at its farthest point (aphelion) on around July 4.

The sun makes up about 99.86% of the mass of the entire solar system. The visible disk or photosphere has a radius of 6.599 × 10⁵ km, and the solar mass is 1.989 × 10³⁰ kg. The sun is a completely gaseous body. The chemical composition (by mass) of the outer layers of sun is 71 per cent hydrogen, 26.5 per cent helium, and 2.5 per cent heavier elements like oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron among others. Since the sun is not a solid body, different parts of the sun rotate at different rates. At the equator, the sun spins once about every 25 earth days, but at its poles the sun rotates once on its axis every 36 days.

Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) is a modified programme of erstwhile Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP), Desert Development Programme (DDP) and Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP) of the Department of Land Resources. The scheme was launched during 2009-10. The programme is being implemented as per Common Guidelines for Watershed Development Projects 2008. The main objectives of the IWMP are to restore the ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water. The outcomes are prevention of soil erosion, regeneration of natural vegetation, rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table. This enables multi-cropping and the introduction of diverse agro-based activities, which help to provide sustainable livelihoods to the people residing in the watershed areas.