eChapters

Plant parasitic nematodes cause serious problems in sustained crop production. For a successful management of nematodes, their morphology, biology and host - parasitic relationship should be thoroughly studied. A thorough study is achieved only when its taxonomical position is known. Thus, in a simple way taxonomy can be defined as the theroretical study of classification of an organism.

The systematic arrangement of organisms into groups on the basis of their relationship is termed as classification.

Nematodes are placed in the group invertebrate, Kingdom Animalia.

Hyman (1951) revised the phylum Aschelminthes and included six classes viz., Rotifera, Gastotricha, Echinodera, Priapulida, Nematoda and Nematomorpha.

1. Botanical Name : Grewia tiliifolia Vahl

2. Family : Tiliaceae

3. Common Name : Dhamani, Dhaman

4. Name in Indian languages

Dhamani, Dhaman (Hindi), Unu (Tamil), Unnam (Malayalam), Cahrachi (Telugu), Todsal (Kannada), Dhamin (Bengali), Dhanu vriksha (Sanskrit), Thadachi pan (Kodwa).

5. Description

Dhaman is a moderate-sized to large tree of family Tiliaceae. It is a very close relative of Phalsa. The yellow flower resembles the true Phalsa flower very much. The main difference is in the leaves. The main trunk can be 60cm or more in diameter. The leaves of Dhaman are oblique heart-shaped. Tree trunk is grey or dark brown. It flowers in April- May. The flowers are small, borne on thick axillary peduncles. Whole fruit expect seed are consumed at ripe stage. The tree is harvested from the wild for local use of its fibre, wood and edible fruit. 7. Morphology

Large trees, bark dark brown or greyish-brown, rough, vertically striated; blaze brownish-red, fibrous, streaked; branchlets stellate-tomentose. Leaves simple, alternate; stipules 7-10 mm, lateral, auricled; petiole 8-35 mm, stout, swollen tipped, pubescent; lamina 6-36 x 3-24 cm, broadly ovate or obliquely ovate to round, base obliquely cordate or subcordate, apex acute, margin double serrate or crenate-serrate, glabrescent above and hoary pubescent beneath, coriaceous, 5-7-ribbed from base, prominent, lateral nerves 3-6 pairs, pinnate, prominent, intercostae scalariform, prominent. Flowers bisexual, yellow, in axillary umbels; peduncle 1.5-2 cm long; sepals 5, pubescent; petals 5, yellow, half the length of sepals, entire or notched, densely tomentose outside; stamens many, free, inserted on a glandular torus; gland densely villous on the margin; ovary superior, globose, hirsute, 2-4-celled, ovules 2-many; style subulate; stigma obscurely lobed, recurved. Fruit a drupe, globose to subglobose, reddish-purple, 2-lobed, sparsely hairy.

Weed

Weed in orchards reduce crop yields by competing for moisture, nutrients, light and space. They also harbour insect pests and diseases. When they become large they interfere with orchard operations. Some of weeds climb on the trees and shade the foliage. There are some weeds which are parasitic partially or completely on the host tree e.g. Striga and loranthes on mango.

7.5.1. Functions

The two primary functions of tyres, especially rear ones, are to provide maximum work output while ploughing the field and for haulage.

Abstract

From the vedic time itself goat is popularly known as a poor man’s cow in India. It has the proven potential to make significant contribution to the poor man’s economy thus livelihood with minimal requirement of care. It can be easily managed by women and children in spare time as it is small-sized animal. Other maintenance requirement like feeding, milking and care of goats do not require much equipment and hard work. Capital investment and feeding costs are also quite low. It not only supplies nutritious and easily digestible milk but goat meat has high demand and price in the market thus can act as regular source of additional income for poor and landless or marginal farmers. Also the role of women in goat keeping is very significant in the poor rural families and goat is the most important means through which rural women are able to contribute meaningfully to the cash needs for their family members. Thus, goat rearing can play very important role in balanced socio-economic development of the country as there is a close relationship between the status of women and the socioeconomic development of any country (Alam, 2001 and Ahmed, 2017).

1.1. Definition

Soil: Thin layer of earth’s crust made up of disintegrated and decomposed rocks, complex mineral compound, organic matter, water/air and living organism like bacteria, fungi, insects and worms and serves as the natural medium of growth of plants.

Provides nutrients, moisture, anchorage (support) and air to plants.

Parent materials are igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

Soil Science: Science dealing with soil (Natural resource) on the surface of the earth, including pedology (Soil genesis, classification and mapping), physical, chemical, biological and fertility properties and their relation to management for crop production.

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is sacredly considered as Kalpavriksha as it supplements the human beings.The popular name coconut is considered to be derived from Spanish word Coco implying “monkey face” which designates reference to the triple scars embossed on the shell which are identical to two eyes and a nose on the monkey’s face. Coconut belongs to family Arecaceae. Coconut palm has been the platform of a critical and sustainable life support system in the humid tropical parts of India. It is undoubtedly the most utilized plant on planet earth in context of number and wide range of products encompassing from the edible kernel, oil, shell liquid which is used as a refreshing drink, sweet sap and endless derivative of foliage, trunk and fiber utilized for widespread utility in agriculture field.

The production of coconut has continued to expand under the traditional niches of marginal land holders and subsistent farmers in the Southern states of our country. Coconut possesses unique capacity to survive and grow in typically distinct soil conditions while it broadly restricts to the regions possessing medium and high rainfall situations. Coconut plays a pivotal role in the economy of India. India is the leading producer of coconut around the globe possessing 31% share with a production of 20440 million nuts from an area of 1975 thousand hectares. Coconut industry supplements sustenance and livelihood to around 12 million people in India. Coconut is aptly known as Kalpavriksha which sensibly means that each and every part of a coconut is utilizable to support the mankind. The leaves of coconut palms get its utility for thatching of house in traditional ways. Besides this, baskets, sheds and husk are utilized for making coir products. Charcoal and activated carbon are made from shell. Coconut is used daily as a traditional ingredient in local cuisines of various Indian States. The other utility products of coconut include virgin coconut oil, dark chocolate etc. The adoption of these products has generated both income of farmers and employment in coconut sector.

A seed consists of a plant embryo, stored food material surrounded by a seed coat. Seeds of cereals and grasses consist of embryo or germ, endosperm and the pericarp.

Seeds of legumes contain no endosperm, the bulk of the seed being made up of the two cotyledons. The cotyledons constitute the food storage portion.

The embryo of the grass seed is made of epicotyl, hypocotyl and scutellum- the single cotyledon of monocots, the epicotyl gives rise to the shoot and the hypocotyl produces the roots.

NAD/NADP (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide/ Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate): Coenzymes acting as carriers of hydrogen atoms and electrons in some oxidoreductases catalyzed reactions. Their oxidized and reduced states are NAD⁺ and NADH + H⁺/NADP⁺ and NADPH + H⁺

Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme is the control of matter on the molecular level in scales smaller than 1 micrometre, normally 1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices within that size range.

Nastic movement: Nastic movements are non-directional responses to stimuli (e.g., temperature, humidity, light irradiance), and are usually associated with plants. The movement can be due to changes in turgor or changes in growth. An example of such a response is opening and closing of flowers. There are several types of nastic movements such as Epinasty, Hyponasty, Photonasty, Nyctinasty, Chemonasty, Hydronasty, Thermonasty, Geonasty/Gravinasty, Thigmonasty, etc.

Lucke (1862) first described that the bluish green discolouration of surgical dressing is associated with the presence of small vibrio like organisms. Gessard (1882) first isolated the bacteria as Pseudomonas.

Identification of the etiologic agent of glanders was performed in 1882 by isolating a bacterium from the infected liver and spleen of horse. Since its discovery, the pathogen has been classified as Loefflerella mallei, Pfeifferella mallei, Malleomyces mallei, Actinobacillus mallei, Corynebacterium mallei, Mycobacterium mallei, Pseudomonas mallei, and currently as Burkholdria mallei. The genus Burkholderia was created to accommodate former rRNA group II (Pseudomallei group) Pseudomonas bacteria. It was based on the 16S rRNA sequences, DNA-DNA homology values, cellular lipid and fatty acid composition.

The fungi are usually:

a) Parasites or saprophytes b) Lithophytes

c) Epiphytes d) Insectivorous

Objective

1. To know the morphology of different spices and condiments.

Materials: The crop of spices and condiments available at Horticulture research farm

Method of observation: Identification of various spices and condiments plants by carefully observing the root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seeds of the plants.

General

1. Habitat: A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of plant. The term typically refers to the zone in which the plant lives and where it can find food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction It is the natural home of a plant. Each habitat has its own particular type of climate like:
   1. Tropical Spices: These are grown at 1800 m - 3500 m height from ground level eg. clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, konkam, galangal, small cardamom, vanilla, black pepper, ginger, turmeric.
   2. Subtropical Spices: These are grown at 300 m - 900 m height from ground level eg. cumin, dill, fennel, coriander, fenugreek, onion, garlic
   3. Temperate Spices: These are grown at 900 m - 1800 m height from ground level eg. saffron, asafetida, caraway seed, celery seed, savoy, caper, balm, origanum, calamus, thyme etc.

The two different compartments of the body fluids are extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF) with variation in solute concentrations.
The extracellular fluid is the fluid in the cardiovascular system or in between the cells, called interstitial fluid.

Tip-burn is the marginal collapse and necrosis of rapidly spreading inner lettuce leaves, at or near the leaf margins. Typically, the condition occurs near harvest, when it may lead to complete crop failure. Early signs include discoloration of the veins and/or the growth of dark brown to black spots near or at the margins of the leaves. The necrotic areas coalesce as the disease progresses, creating a lesion up to several centimeters long.

India stands 3rd position in citrus production in world after China and Brazil. It is the most important fruit crops grown in India, however, our productivity is quite low 8.9 t/ha (Srivastava and Singh, 2006).

Important Points to Remember

Apple

• Botanical name: Malus x domestica Borkh.
• Family: Rosaceae
• 2n: 34
• Origin: Asia Minor to Western Himalayas

Observation recording: Phenological events are typically quantified by observing the date of onset and the duration of particular phenophases, which include both vegetative and reproductive events like leaf shedding, leaf emergence, flowering and fruiting. To record the phenological events students should note down the emergence of leaf, flowering and fruiting at the interval of 15 days by vising the targeted tree species.

Elephant foot yam, Amorphophallus campanutatus Blume (= Arum campanulatum Roxb.) belongs to the family Araceae. It is also known as elephant yam, Elephant bread, Suran, Sweet yam etc. It is a native to Tropical Asia and is found throughout the plains of the Indian sub-continent and some other parts of South East Asia and Africa growing both wild as well as cultivated.

Abstract

This chapter provides a brief overview of the key milestones in the development of bioinformatics that would help to understand the historical context and evolution of a subject. As an interdisciplinary field, bioinformatics has grown gradually from molecular biology, with the development of various algorithms, databases, and other important tools that have helped to advance computational biology. Some important events in the history of bioinformatics might include the development of the first algorithms for sequence alignment and comparison, the creation of early databases such as GenBank and Swiss- Prot, and the development of software tools for molecular modeling and drug design. Other key milestones might include the sequencing of the first genomes, the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies, and the emergence of new areas of research such as systems biology and synthetic biology. By understanding the historical context of bioinformatics, students and researchers can gain a deeper appreciation for the current state of the field and the ongoing efforts to advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie life.

With the sharp development of urban and industrial growth, the area under agriculture is declining year by year. On the other hand, human and animal population is increasing at a very fast rate. So, to meet the growing demand of food and fodders, a vertical increase in yield is required. Crop productivity per unit area can be enhanced with the manipulations of some agronomist practices such as sowing the crops at appropriate time, selection of suitable field for raising a crop, adoption of best planting techniques, use of appropriate seed rates, adoption of proper irrigation schedule, proper and need based application of fertilizers, adoption of zero till technology, green manuring, mulching, addition of well decomposed farm yard manure, timely and proper weed management, selection of recommended crops and crop varieties, proper control of insects and pests, adoption of marketing tips etc.