eChapters

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is measurement of oxygen demand of waste in terms of the total quantity of oxygen required for oxidation of the waste to carbon dioxide and water. This test is based on the fact that all the organic compounds, with few exceptions, can be oxidized The test is based on the fact that all organic compounds, with a few exceptions, can be oxidized by the action of strong oxidizing agents under acid conditions. Organic matter + Oxidizing agent = CO2 + H2O. The major advantage of COD test is the short time required for evaluation. The determination can be made in about 3 hours rather than the 5-days required for the measurement of BOD
Principle
The oxidizing agents like potassium permanganate and potassium dichromate is usually used to determine COD. Potassium permanganate is selective in the reaction like it reacts with carbonaceous on the other hand it shows nonreactive with nitrogenous matter. Estimating of COD with any method, oxidizing agent must be present to ensure that organic matter is oxidized completely. The organic matter and oxidisable inorganic substances present in water or wastewater get oxidised completely by standard potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in the presence of H2SO4 to produce CO2 + H2O.The excess K2Cr2O7 remaining after the reaction is titrated with ferrous ammonium sulphate [Fe(NH4)2 (SO4)2]. The dichromate consumed gives the 02 required for oxidation of the organic matter.

Salinity is a measure of the total concentration of dissolved solids, which is usually expressed in parts per thousand (ppt). Chloride, sulphate, bicarbonate, and bromide are anions (- charged). Cations that are positively charged are sodium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and strontium. The main solids are sodium and chloride.

This chapter describes methods for evaluating soil reaction, salinity, organic matter and plant-available nutrients. It begins with soil pH and electrical conductivity, explaining their importance in nutrient availability and the identification of acidic, saline or alkaline conditions. Procedures are then provided for estimating organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. The chapter also covers calcium, magnesium and micronutrients, including zinc, iron, copper, manganese, boron and molybdenum. Every method identifies the necessary apparatus and reagents and explains extraction, colour development, instrumental measurement, calculation and interpretation. Particular attention is given to calibration, sample preparation, reagent quality, contamination control and laboratory safe

This chapter introduces the chemical nature of wool as a keratin-based protein fibre rich in sulphur-containing amino acids. It examines keratin structure, peptide and disulphide bonds, amino-acid composition, amphoteric behaviour and reactions with acids, alkalis, oxidising and reducing agents. The chapter explains the chemical basis of dyeing, swelling, felting, shrinkage and finishing treatments. Understanding these properties is essential for controlling wool processing while preserving fibre strength, appearance and functional performance.

2.1. Classification of Fish

Fish are incredibly diverse aquatic vertebrates. There are over 32,000 de scribed species of bony fish, over 1,100 species of cartilaginous fish, and over 100 hagfish and lampreys. Fish can be broadly classified into three groups:

2.1.1. Superclass Agnatha (Jawless fish): These are the most primitive fish, lacking jaws and paired fins. They have existed for over 500 million years. Examples include lampreys and hagfish.

2.1.2. Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fish): These fish have skeletons made of cartilage instead of bone. They have jaws and paired fins. Examples include sharks, skates, and rays.

2.1.3. Superclass Osteichthyes (Bony fish): This is the largest and most diverse group of fish. They have skeletons made of bone and have jaws and paired fins. Examples include tuna, salmon, goldfish, and many more.

4.1. Classification

The class Aves, also known as birds, is a group of warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, laying hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Birds are found worldwide and come in a variety of sizes, from the tiny humming bird to the massive ostrich.

The classification of Aves can be broken down into two major subgroups: Palaeognathae and Neognathae.

4.1.1. Palaeognathae: Also known as ratites, these are flightless birds with f lat sterna (breastbones) that lack keels, which are important for flight muscle attachment. Examples of palaeognathae include ostriches, emus, rheas, and kiwis.

Carnivora is an order of placental mammals that have specialized in primarily eating flesh, whose members are formally referred to as carnivorans. The order Carnivora is the fifth largest order of mammals, comprising at least 279 species. They come in a very large array of different body plans with a wide diversity of shapes and sizes. The common characteristics of carnivores are given below:

• They are meat eaters.

• There is the presence of canine teeth.

• The intestinal tract is short and is adapted to rapid digestion as well as the assimilation of meat.

• All species have anal glands. Some species, like the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), may eject the contents of the anal gland as a defensive maneuver.

• Os penis is present in males.

• There is a lack of a clavicle which helps in the freedom of movement of the forelimb.

• Ulna is well developed.

• Toes end in claws.

9.1. Classification: Order Perissodactyla

The order Perissodactyla, also known as odd-toed ungulates, is a group of herbivorous mammals characterized by having one or three toes on each foot. They are distinguished from even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla) by this anatomical feature. Even-toed ungulates, such as pigs, cows, and deer, have an even number of toes (two or four) on each foot. Some of the well-known members of this order include horses, zebras, asses, tapirs, and rhinoceroses.

The name “Perissodactyla” comes from the Greek words “perissos,” meaning “odd,” and “daktylos,” meaning “finger or toe,” referring to their unique foot structure. Unlike even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla), which bear weight on their third and fourth toes, perissodactyls primarily bear weight on their third toe.

7.1. Introduction

Chemical restraint of insectivores is a technique used by veterinarians and wildlife biologists to immobilize small mammals that primarily eat insects, such as shrews, moles, and hedgehogs. It is essential for performing examinations, administering medications, and conducting research on these animals.

There are several factors to consider when chemically restraining insectivores:

• Species: Different species of insectivores may have varying degrees of sensitivity to different drugs.

• Age and health: Younger and healthier animals generally tolerate chemical restraint better than older or sick animals.

• Temperature: Insectivores are sensitive to temperature regulation, so it’s crucial to maintain a stable body temperature during restraint.

10.1. Classification of Primates

The classification of primates is a complex topic that has been revised over time as our understanding of these fascinating creatures has evolved. Here’s a breakdown of the current classification system:

10.1.1. Order: Primates

Primates are an order of mammals that includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans. They are characterized by a number of shared features, including:

• Opposable thumbs: This allows primates to grasp objects and manipulate their environment.

• Forward-facing eyes: This provides primates with depth perception, which is important for arboreal locomotion and foraging.

• Enlarged brains: Primates have relatively large brains for their body size, which is associated with their intelligence and complex social behaviors.

• Reduced sense of smell:Compared to other mammals, primates have a weaker sense of smell. This is thought to be due to their reliance on vision for foraging and social interaction.

3.1. Introduction

Various procedures performed on reptiles often necessitate chemical restraint or general anesthesia. Even routine tasks like physical examination and transportation can pose challenges, particularly with large or uncooperative reptilian patients. For safety reasons, venomous species are typically evaluated under chemical restraint. The respiratory anatomy and physiology of reptiles differ significantly from those of more familiar mammals, influencing their response to commonly used anesthetic agents. Historically, anesthetics recommended for reptiles had notable metabolic effects, but inhalant anesthesia has become more popular in recent times. Nonetheless, in species capable of anaerobic metabolism, induction with these agents may not be feasible (Girling 2013).

Rodents and lagomorphs are two distinct groups of mammals, often mistaken for each other due to some shared physical characteristics. However, they belong to different taxonomic orders and possess several key differences

5.1. Rodents

They belong to the order Rodentia and the example species include rats, mice, squirrels, hamsters, guinea pigs, beavers, and porcupines. Order Rodentia is the largest and most diversified mammalian group, differing widely in size, behavior, feeding habits, anatomy, and physiology. Based on the anatomy and functional differences of masseter muscles, it is divided into 3 suborders viz., Caviomorpha, Myomorpha, and Sciuromorpha. Caviomorpha is also called hystrichomorpha and includes guinea pigs, chinchillas and degu. The suborder Myomorpha includes mice, rats, hamsters and gerbils. These animals have the strongest ability to gnaw among animals in all 3 suborders. Sciuridae is a family that includes small or medium size rodents. This family consists of tree squirrels, ground or medium size squirrels, and large size squirrels also known as marmots or prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). Smaller and less bushy tailed squirrels are known as chipmunks (Tamias striatus) and flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans).

8.1. Classification

The ruminants belong to the Order Artiodactyla. The families in order of Artiodactyla include Camelidae, Tragulidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae, Antliocapridae, and Bovidae.

The family Camelidae includesGuanaco (Lama guanicoe), Llama (Lama glama), Alpaca or South American camelid mammal (Lama pacos), Dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius), and Bactrian or two-humped camels (Camelus bactrianus).

The family Tragulidae includes Chevrotains originate from Africa (Hyumo schusaquaticus) and Chevrotains that originate from Asia (Tragulus species).

The family CervidaeincludesWhite tailed deer(Odococlius virginianus), Follow deer (Dama dama), Roe-deer (Capreolus capreolus), Axis deer (Axis axis), Reindeer (Rangiter tarandus), Musk deer (Moschus species) and Chinese water deer (Hydropotes species).

1.1. Introduction

Wildlife management often requires interventions to safely handle and transport animals. Chemical restraint, also known as immobilization or tranquilization, is a technique widely used to facilitate these processes (Hernandez, 2014). It involves the administration of drugs to temporarily immobilize wild animals, allowing for various procedures such as veterinary medical examinations, tagging, relocation, or rehabilitation. This chapter provides an overview of the principles, methods, drugs, and considerations involved in the chemical restraint of wild animals.

It has been often stated that the most important techniques required by the zoo veterinarian are those used in the capture and restraint of the patient. These techniques have developed into a highly technical science (Clarke et al., 2014). In the early days of zoos, the only practical method was to manually catch and hold the patient. Modern techniques, however, permit a veterinarian to shoot a CO2 powered gun, which discharges a projectile syringe at an animal resulting in complete immobilization of the animal (Jacques et al., 2009). This is accomplished without any physical contact between the patient and his captors.

The constitution of different solutions plays a significant role in successful demonstration of anatomical techniques especially the special stains. The sincerety begins at the time of fixation of the tissues and deviation at any step may lead to failure of procedure. The chemical reagents required for a particular method have been enlisted at their sites however; the commonly used chemicals are comprehended at one place for convenience of the users.

Synthesis of Zn Oxide Nanoparticle

Aim

To synthesize Zn oxide nanoparticle

Introduction

Zinc oxide nanoparticle are effective anti-bacterial and antiodur agent. They can be synthesized by number of techniques including hydrothermal methods. Their synthesis using solvothermal process is described, (Aneesh et al., 2007).

Chemical Synthesis Methods

Several methods can be used for the production of these nanoparticles, namely: (i) top-down methods (Li et al., 2006) such as vacuum sputtering (Kuhn et al., 2002) or the decomposition of iron penta carbonyl (Fe(CO)5) in organic solvents (Karlsson et al., 2005); and (ii) bottom-up methods that promote the ‘growth’ of the nanostructures via chemical synthesis, for example through the reaction of iron(II) or iron(III) salts with sodium borohydride (Wang and Zhang, 1997). However, these methods present several limitations and problems; the top-down methods are generally expensive and require specific and costly equipment while the drawbacks of the bottom-up approaches are related to safety issues due to the toxicity of sodium borohydride, the production of flammable hydrogen gas during the process (Li et al., 2006), and the tendency to form large agglomerates, very fast and at a high extent, and therefore have a reduced reactivity and degradation efficiency.

Laboratory Tests

Sampling procedures

Samples from number of containers- As soon as the cans are received at the reception dock, remove the lid, mix contents of each can with a plunger and draw equal quantities from each container and mix together. Draw approximately 80 – 100 ml of sample for testing. If the cans are of same diameter, Alternatively, milk from different containers are first poured into a vat and then the sample is drawn by thorough mixing as above..

Samples from storage tank – Before drawing sample from storage tank, switch on the mechanical agitator and allow the contents to mix for 15-20 minutes. Discard first 1.0 L of milk. Transfer 250-500 ml of the mixed milk from the outlet valve into a sample bottle.

Samples from rail / road tankers- Open the lid of the tanker and insert a big plunger through the main hole and move it forward, downward and backward bring the plunger to the surface at each stroke. Continue mixing for 15-20 minutes. Draw proportionate quantities of sample with the help of suitable dipper from different levels. Draw 250-500 ml of well-mixed sample into the sample bottle. The total volume of individual composite sample should not be less than 150 ml.

Introduction

The compounds produced one kind of microbe that are poisonous to another type of microbes are known as antibiotics. Actinomycetous bacteria and certain fungi are the primary producers of antibiotics. Antibiotics have highly complicated chemical makeups and formulations, which are frequently unknown. To combat plant diseases, however, antibiotics were first introduced in 1950. Typically, plants absorb and then move systemically internal antibiotics used for managing plant diseases. Usually, they operate on the host or the pathogen directly or after going through transformation to control plant diseases. In addition to acting as eradicators, they also serve as protectors and offer resistance to the invasion of viruses, and their impact lasts for a while.

Introduction

• Nematicides are chemically synthesized products that kill or adversely affect nematodes.

• These products can have a nematicidal or nemastatic effect on nematodes.

• Nematicidal compounds are highly toxic and kill exposed nematodes.

• Nemastatic compounds do not kill nematodes but interfere with the migration of nematodes towards the roots of the host plant or delay nematode hatching.

• Many nematicides are broad spectrum, volatile, soil fumigant.

• They are not only active against nematodes, but also insects, fungi, bacteria, weed seeds and almost everything else that lives on the ground.