eChapters

Key facts

    
•    The use of chemicals has many benefits, however, there are potential risks that some of these chemicals may cause harm to organisms and human health if they enter into the environment.
    
•    Harmful chemicals are those chemicals which are persistent, bio-accumulative, as well as toxic (PBT). 
    
•    Environmental or ecological risk assessment (ERA) consists of hazard identification, effect assessment, exposure assessment, risk characterization, risk classification, risk-benefit analysis, risk reduction and monitoring.
    
•    The five types of environmental monitoring are: chemical monitoring, bio-accumulation monitoring, biological effect monitoring, health monitoring and ecosystem monitoring. 
    
•    An integrated monitoring program is a coordinated monitoring activity comprising of both chemical and biological measurements in a variety of environmental compartments. There are four different monitoring levels in an integrated ERA, these are: suborganismals (biomarkers), organisms (bioassays), populations (bio-indicators) and ecosystems (ecological indicators).

Fruit drop just before harvest is a serious problem for various crop varieties. The severity of fruit drop is influenced by several factors but plant stress and premature ethylene production is at the basis of true physiological drop. Stress factors such as late season heat, primary and secondary pest infestation, and nutrient imbalance or deficiency, and heavy summer pruning, all can contribute to drop.

The use of flower inducers stimulates flower growth during the resting year so the tree produces annually. Flower inducers can also increase the number of viable blooms during the natural fruit producing year, for an increase in production. These can also be used on varieties that provide a crop every year, to boost harvest.

Abstract

Eight species including 1 variety, 2 macro and 6 micro-lichens from Garhwal Himalaya, c 1500-2700 m, have been found to glow and emit fluorescent light, when exposed to long wave-length (254 nm) ultra-violet radiataions. Taxonomy and chemistry of all these species have been critically evaluated. The recorded taxa belong to families Physciaceae (4 species); Pertusariaceae, Rhizocarpaceae (1 species each) and Lichen imperfecti (2 species). The reported taxa are: Buellia hemispherica Singh and Awasthi, B. sub-glaziouana Singh and Awasthi; Pertusaria pertusa (Weig.) Tuck., Pyxine berteriana (Fee) Imsh. var. himalayensis Awasthi; P. cocoes (Swartz) Nyl., Rhizocarpon geographicum (L.) DC.; Lepraria taxonomic species I and II.

Understanding the chemistry of submerged soil in the field of Geology, Pedology, Agriculture and other allied sectors draws attention to the research on characteristic changes in soil under submergence. It has been reported that, about 72% of the earth’s surface is covered by submerged soils or sediments . Rice plants have unique adaptation capability to grow under submerged soil and in any type of soil (acid/alkaline) condition or land situation (upland/lowland). The knowledge on changes of important physical, chemical and biological properties under submergence have important role to play in understanding the mechanisms of availability of nutrients to the plants and sustainability of the crop during its growing period.

9.0 Submerged Soil

The soils which are saturated with water for a longer period of time in a year to make the soil a distinctive gley horizons resulting from oxidation-reduction processes are called submerged soil. About 72% of the earth’s surface is covered with soil –submergence or sediments.

11.1. What is acid soil?

Acid soils refer to those soils that are characterized with the presence of higher concentration of H⁺ in soil solution and at exchangeable sites or characterized with its high proton donating capacity such as aluminium (Al³⁺) on hydrolysis gives rise to proton. Both H⁺ and Al³⁺ are responsible to contribute soil acidity. Al³⁺ causes soil acidity indirectly by generating H⁺ through its hydrolysis, while H⁺ contributes directly. Therefore, due to more abundance of H⁺, they exhibit low soil pH and low base saturation (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺ and K⁺). Such soil is considered as problematic soil because plant growth is affected adversely under acidic conditions and they suffer root injuries when grown in acid soils. Besides, soil acidity interferes in the soil nutrients availability to plants, making them either deficient to plants (such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum) or toxic to plants for their more availability. Under acidic condition, Al, Mn and Fe are found in more soluble form. Thus, they are taken up by the plant in such a higher level that they become toxic to plants. Phosphorus becomes immobile due to the formation of insoluble compounds with aluminium and iron under acidic conditions. Ca, Mg and Mo also become unavailable in acid soil and show their deficiency symptoms. Soil acidity also affects soil microbial growth and thus, in turn, affects the nutrient dynamics in soil. Soil acidification is induced heavily under intensive agricultural practices such as increasing leaching due to more irrigation practices, addition of fertilizers, build-up of soil organic matter and many other possible ways.

Soil  is an interface of inorganic and organic componentsof the planet earth, which combines carbon and nitrogen from the atmosphere with different mineral elements of the lithosphere through millions of microorganisms, intercepting energy from the sun and moisture from the hydrosphere and atmosphere. It is a source as well as sink to adsorb, desorb, fix or release mineral elements and gases, decompose organic residues, simultaneously and support the growth of plants. All these natural processes are accompanied by runoff, percolation and evapotranspiration processes of the hydrologic cycle. Thus, soil is a dynamic body that acquires properties in accordance with the forces, which act upon it. Many soil properties emanate from physical, chemical and biologically mediated reactions, where the factors like climate, vegetation, topography and time  influences the processes. Soil reaction is one of the most important chemical characteristics of the soil solution,which has both direct and indirect effects on plant nutrition.

Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found in living organisms. Carbohydrates are also called sugars and are found in plants and animals. Plants synthesize them through photosynthesis (endothermic) by fixing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the presence of solar energy and chlorophyll pigments.
nCO2 + nH2O + energy → CnH2nOn + nO2
Carbohydrates are stored as starch in plants as a source of energy. They are also stored in animals as glycogen in muscles and the liver. They are also found in skeletal structures of cell walls in plants (cellulose), bacteria (peptidoglycans), insects, and crustaceans. This stored food is consumed by animals and man, and upon their oxidation in the body, energy is released for various metabolic activities (work, growth, and various productive functions). Compositionwise, plants are more prosperous in carbohydrates (30%) than animals (1%), with water at 60% and ash at 4%. Plants are poor in proteins (5%) and lipids (1%) as compared to proteins (20%) and lipids (15%) in animals.
2.1 Introduction to Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates or saccharides (sakcharon=sugar or sweetness) are a chemical term applied to a large group of substances, which are organic compounds containing elements Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms are in the ratio of two to one as in water molecules. As the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is like H2O, they are also known as “hydrates of carbon” and are represented as (CH2O)n. But there is an exception to this general formula. Deoxyribose (C5H1OO4) and rhamnose (C6H12O5) do not have the required ratio of 2:1 for hydrogen to oxygen. On the other side, some compounds possess this required ratio but are not carbohydrates, e.g., formaldehyde (CH2O), acetic acid (C2H4O2), and lactic acid (C3H6O3). Further, some carbohydrates have nitrogen(glucosamine), phosphorus, and sulfur but do not satisfy the above general formula. The simplest sugars are called monosugars or monosaccharides. There are two main functional groups in

Cheese is made from milk, with the addition of cream, buttermilk, and/or whey. This basic raw material is also called cheese milk. Cheese consists mainly of casein (the major protein of milk), other milk proteins, fat, other milk components, and a certain percentage of water, which is bound. Proteins are precipitated by enzymes and/or acidification as well as heat and are separated by suitable processes from the aqueous phase. (whey, serum). Cheese is most often molded, pressed, and salted and has fungal and bacterial culture additions. colorants, herbs, spices, and other non-dairy ingredients are also added to the cheese. It is consumed either fresh or at different stages of ripening.

Worldwide, there are more than 2000 types of cheese, sometimes made by very different manufacturing processes. A classification can be based on several aspects and is done in different countries according to different criteria. A general classification can be made for three major groups:

a. Rennet or natural cheese: manufactured straight from milk by using proteolytic enzymes (rennet) and acid, with a more or less pronounced ripening process.

b. Fresh cheese or non-ripened Cheese: Quarg, fresh cheese, and white cheese are examples. Its manufacturing process is similar to that of rennet cheese manufacturing, but it has a high degree of acidity and is not subjected to a proteolytic ripening process.

c. Long-life cheese (processed cheese): it is more often made from rennet cheese and is textured by thermal treatment and made shelf-stable.

Concentrated milk products are obtained through partial removal of water which increases the dry matter content of milk. The increase in dry matter content in concentrated milk is proportional to the degree of concentration. The milk concentrate may be prepared from either full-cream whole milk or fat-free skim milk.

Depending on the nature of raw material and other non-milk additives concentrated milks are classified into four broad categories.

1. Sweetened condensed milk

2. Evaporated milk or unsweetened condensed milk

3. Sterile milk concentrate

4. Reconstituted concentrated milk

Sweetened Condensed Milk

One of the earliest dairy products to be produced industrially is sweetened condensed milk. According to FSSA (2006), sweetened condensed milk is the product obtained by partial removal of water from the milk of cow/buffalo with the addition of sugar or a combination of sucrose with other sugars or by any other process that leads to a product of the same composition and characteristics. The fat and/or protein content of the milk may be adjusted by the addition and/or withdrawal of milk constituents in such a way as not to alter the whey protein to casein ratio of the milk being adjusted. It shall have a pleasant taste and flavor and be free from off-flavor and rancidity. It shall be free from any substance foreign to milk. It may contain food additives. It shall conform to the microbiological requirement as laid down by FSSA. The said product shall also conform to the following requirements

1.1 Introduction
Concentrated milks, like evaporated milk and sweetened condensed milk, serve as practical substitutes for fresh milk in regions where access to it is limited or where transportation and storage are challenging. These products go through specific processing techniques to reduce their water content, thereby improving their shelf life and transportability. Evaporated milk is created by removing water through evaporation and then
sterilizing it to prevent microbial growth. This process results in a thicker consistency and a slightly caramelized flavor due to the heat treatment. On the other hand, sweetened condensed milk is made by adding a significant amount of sucrose to the milk and excluding oxygen, which inhibits microbial growth. This results in a thick, sweet product suitable for various culinary uses. These concentrated milk products are usually packaged in small cans, making them convenient for storage and transportation. However, they are sometimes diluted before consumption with water to resemble the taste and consistency of fresh milk. In regions where even concentrated milks are not easily accessible, alternatives like whole milk powder or recombined milk are used. These alternatives involve dehydrating milk into powder form or reconstituting milk components to create a liquid similar to fresh milk. Innovations in processing and packaging have led to the development of alternative uses for concentrated milks, expanding their versatility beyond traditional applications. These products continue to provide essential dairy
nutrition in areas where fresh milk is scarce or hard to obtain, offering a shelfstable solution to meet dietary needs.

Chemistry of Creaming

After being drawn from animals, normal milk will form a cream layer on standing. Because of the difference in density between fat globules (920 kg m−3 at room temperature) and milk plasma (density 1030 kg m−3), the granules tend to rise. This causes creaming, which we often want to prevent and it enables milk to be separated into cream and skim milk. Creaming is much enhanced when the globules have been aggregated into flocculates, clusters, or granules.

Cream Ripening

This unit operation serves as an intensive preparation of the cream for the churning process. It is divided into two categories.

1. Physical ripening;

2. biochemical ripening The following criteria are influenced by the cream ripening:

• Consistency, firmness, and spreadability of butter.

• Basic water content of butter during the manufacturing process (bound water in butter, which cannot be removed by any mechanical treatment).

• Buttermilk fat content, which has to be minimized.

The melting and solidification behavior of fat depends on the attached fatty acid, which indicate the hardness of the butterfat.

Natural hardness is caused mainly by seasonal feeding of the milk animals. Winter feed with a great deal of dry feed or roughage yields a hard butterfat with a high percentage of saturated and short-chain fatty acids and few double bonds in the fat molecules.

Summer feeding (green grass) results in fat with longer chains and a higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids with many double bonds. We therefore distinguish between summer fat and winter fat or summer cream and winter cream.

The process of making dried milk involves eliminating water from milk, primarily through spray or roller drying. It is regarded as a significant sector of the dairy industry and is made from whole cow, buffalo, or standardized milk. Skim milk powder (SMP) is made from milk after the fat has been removed whereas whole milk powder (WMP) is made from whole cow or buffalo milk

FSSA (2006) Standard Of Milk Powder According to FSSA (2006), Milk powder is the product obtained by partial removal of water from the milk of cows and/or buffalo. The fat and/or protein content of the milk may be adjusted by the addition and/or withdrawal of milk constituents in such a way as not to alter the whey protein to casein ratio of the milk. It shall be of uniform color and shall have pleasant taste and flavor, free from off-flavor and rancidity. It shall also be free from vegetable oil/fat, mineral oil, thickening agents, added flavor, and sweetening agents. It may contain food additives. It shall conform to the microbiological requirements prescribed by FSSA (2006).

Water activity, high storage temperatures, longer than usual storage times, high product moisture content, high processing temperatures, and container headspace are some of the variables that affect the Maillard reaction in dried milk.

Casein and whey proteins are the major proteins present in milk. Unlike casein, whey proteins are heat-labile. Whey protein fractions present in milk are α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, bovine serum albumin, immunoglobulin, euglobulin, and lactoferrin. β-lactoglobulin and κ-casein interact during heat treatment. When milk is refrigerated for longer than 24 h, it forms γ-casein and protease-peptone fractions.

2.1 Introduction
The continuous production of dry milk has become consistently significant within the dairy industry and is expected to continue growing due to its advantageous features. These include improved shelf life, reduced storage
requirements, and lower transportation costs, all of which contribute to favourable economic outcomes.
For example, non-fat dry milk is also known as skim milk powder, dried skim milk, non-fat dry milk solids, or dehydrated skim milk. Similarly, products like dried whole milk, dried cream, and dried buttermilk are often regarded as dried or powdered whole milk, cream, and buttermilk, respectively, based on their specific compositions.
2.2 Types of Dried Powder
1. Nonfat dry milk
2. Dry whole milk
3. Dry buttermilk
4. Dry whey
5. Dry ice cream mix
6. Dry creams (sweet or sour)
7. Dry skim milk vegetable fat products
8. Malted milk Powder
9. Cheese powders (Cheddar, Blue, etc.)
10. Sweetened chocolate flavoured non fat dry milk
11. Coffee creaming products
12. Sodium or Calcium Caseinates
13. Dry high acid milks
14. Partly skim milk powder
15. Infant milk food

The terms “cultured dairy foods,” “cultured dairy products,” and “cultured milk products” are other terms for fermented dairy products. Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, and other lactic acid bacteria, along with yeasts in certain products, are used to ferment milk to make these dairy products. The product’s shelf life is extended through fermentation, which also improves the product’s taste and milk’s digestibility. There is a wide variety of fermented milk products available, each with unique flavors and attributes. The following categories apply to fermented milk products, based on the type of fermentation.

Changes in Nutrients Resulting from Fermentation

Fermentation lowers the lactose content in fermented milk products; however, if the starting milk is concentrated or fortified, the finished product’s lactose content may be higher than that of liquid milk.

The composition and content of protein and total amino acids are comparable to those of raw milk. Casein degradation is small compared to cheese, accounting for not more than 1% of the total protein. While some products of casein degradation are used by the starter microorganisms, others build up as free amino acids in the fermented kinds of milk. The amounts of free amino acids that build up differ depending on the species. Generally, proline is increased in large quantities, followed by serine, alanine, valine, leucine, and histidine. As a result of continuous starter culture activity, the level of free amino acids increases during storage. A limited degree of lipolysis occurs during the manufacture of fermented milk. The amount varies depending on the type of species, but the pattern and concentration of free fatty acids are both impacted. During fermentation and the breakdown of amino acids, trace amounts of volatile fatty acids are also produced.

Very little is known about the basic principles governing the chemistry of flavour or fragrance. In English, the term aroma chemicals is used for both fragrance and flavour compounds. Any compound with a sufficiently high vapour pressure will have an odour and this is normally of the molecular weight of around 300, a relatively low polarity granted (Frater et al., 1998). Generally only compounds with pleasant smell are considered to fall under the realm of fragrance chemistry, but purified individual components from a mixture may have a malodour. Almost all ancient civilizations had their tradition of making fragrances from natural materials, mostly of plant origin, but also of animal origin – these are mostly essential oils, exudates, balsam and resins (Arctander, 1969).
 
It was in the latter half of the 19th century that synthetic fragrance chemicals were experimented upon and brought into the market, examples being coumarin (Fig. 1) (in the year 1866), salicylaldehyde (Fig. 2) (1876), vanillin (Fig. 3) (1876), phenylacetaldehyde (Fig. 4) (1883), piperonal (Fig. 5) (1890), musk xylol (Fig. 6) (1891) and b-ionone (Fig. 8) (1893) (Frater et al., 1998).

The Structure of Proteins

Proteins are composed of building blocks called amino acids. A string of amino acids is called a polypeptide chain. Once such a chain has folded into its working three-dimensional shape, it is a protein. Though there are tens of thousands of different proteins, all of them are put together from a starting set of 20 amino acids. It is the order in which the amino acids are linked in a polypeptide chain that determines which protein will be produced.

One of the most consumed and well- known milk products in the Indian subcontinent is ghee. It is a by- product of tradition, prepared both at organized dairy plants and the household level for a well- established market. Ghee is traditionally made from the milk of cows or buffalo. The tetrapyrrole pigments biliverdin and bilirubin are responsible for the distinctive color of buffalo ghee. On the other hand, ghee is golden yellow due to the presence of carotenoids in cow’s milk. Ghee’s composition changes according to the kind and feeding habits of the animal and can differ from place to place and season to season.

In addition to, being a substantial source of fat- soluble vitamins, essential fatty acids, and other growth- promoting components, ghee is a rich source of energy. Its value as food for humans is enormous. Additional attributes related to medicine are present in ghee. Ghee can improve one’s physical and mental attributes and treat eye conditions like ulcers. Ghee is used in religious and ceremonial rites in addition to being consumed.

Composition

Ghee is a complex lipid composed of mixed glyceride which makes up 99–99.5% of its total content. In addition, it has trace amounts of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, copper, and fat- soluble vitamins, tocopherols, carbonyls, hydrocarbons, carotenoids, free fatty acids, phospholipid, sterols, and sterol esters

4.1 Introduction
Human milk widely acknowledged as the optimal source of nutrition for infants, providing a rich array of components crucial for their growth, repair and development. However, the composition of human milk can vary
significantly within and between feeds, throughout the day, over the course of lactation, and among different mothers and also populations. While this variability is beneficial for infant health and survival, it presents challenges for the management of nutrition of high-risk infants who require precise oversight. The composition of human milk can be altered by factors such as the handling of expressed milk, including how it is stored and pasteurized. Thus, proper management of expressed milk is essential. The recommended practice for infant nutrition is exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months, followed by continued breastfeeding for at least one to two years. Human milk is naturally suited to meet the nutritional needs of infants, providing both nourishment and bioactive compounds that support healthy growth and immunity.
Human milk contains a variety of bioactive components, such as immune cells, anti-infective and anti-inflammatory agents, growth factors, and prebiotics. In contrast to infant formula, which has a fixed nutritional profile, human milk is dynamic and can vary between and within feedings, influenced by maternal factors, environmental conditions, and the methods used for expressing and managing milk.
A thorough understanding of human milk’s composition is vital for effective infant feeding, especially for at-risk infants. It also allows for the assessment of how milk storage and pasteurization may impact its beneficial components. Additionally, some of the bioactive elements in human milk are being studied for their potential use in medical treatments, either as preventive or therapeutic agents.

Commercially, one of the most significant milk products is ice cream. It is a frozen product which is usually made from milk or cream that has been f lavored with fruits like peaches or strawberries, and spices like vanilla or cocoa, or with sugar or a substitute. Stabilizers are sometimes combined with food coloring. Ice cream mix typically contains 10.0% milk fat, 11.0% solids not-fat, 14.0% added sugar, and 0.3% additives like an emulsifier, stabilizer, f lavor, and color substances.

Standard of Ice Cream

According to FSSA (2006), ice cream, kulfi, chocolate ice cream or softy ice cream means the product obtained by freezing pasteurized milk prepared from milk and/or other products derived from milk with the addition of sweetening agents and fruit products, egg products, coffee, cocoa, ginger, and nuts. It may also contain chocolate, and bakery products such as cake or cookies as a separate layer and/or coating. It may be frozen hard or frozen to a soft consistency. It shall be free from artificial sweeteners. It shall have a pleasant taste and smell free from flavor and rancidity. It may contain food additives. It shall conform to the microbiological requirements as given in FSSA (2006).