eChapters

3.1 Malted Milk
Malted milk, originating from the ideas of British pharmacist James Horlick in the 19th century, was initially marketed under the name “Diastoid” before being trademarked as “malted milk” in 1887. Although initially targeted
for infants and invalids, its appeal expanded due to its nutritional value, convenience, digestibility, and palatability. Recognized globally for its lightweight, non-perishable nature, and high-calorie content, malted milk is
created by evaporating a mixture of malted barley, wheat flour, and whole milk until it forms a powder.
There aremainly two types of malt powder: diastatic and non-diastatic. Diastatic malt containing enzymes breaking down starch into sugar, aiding in dough rise and crust formation, particularly in bread making. Non-diastatic
malt lacks active enzymes and is primarily utilized for flavor enhancement, commonly in beverages. It may also include sugar, coloring agents, and other additives to improve taste and appearance.
3.2 Malting
Malting is a crucial process employed in treating cereal grains, such as barley, by inducing germination through soaking in water followed by halting the process through drying or heating with hot air. This technique encompasses two main stages: sprouting and kiln-drying. The term “malt” encompasses several products of this process:
1. Malted grains: These are grains, like barley, that have undergone the malting process.
2. Malt sugars: These are sugars, predominantly maltose-rich, derived from malted grains, often utilized in baking, such as baker’s malt.
3. Malted milk products: These include beverages like malted milkshakes, made using malted milk.

The native and applied organic matter play an important role in terms of nutrient adsorption , nutrient mobility and microbial habitat on soil. The dominant ions present in soil under a particular agro-ecological situation may or may not be available to the growing plants due to the presence of organic matter. The binding energy and the stability of the organo-metal complexation would play an important role in availability of nutrients to the plants. The organo-metal complexation reaction depends on the nature of the ionic species (ionic/non ionic) present in soil. The organic fractions (Humic acid/Fulvic acid) react with metal ions present in soil to form complexes which may be stable or unstable depending upon the molecular arrangement and degree of coiling of humic/fulvic substances. The surface charge density on clay and soil pH also play an important role to determine the order of stability of different nutrients (macro/micro) in soil.

12.1. Introduction

All soils invariably contain soluble salts. However, physico-chemical and biological soil properties start degrading when excessive amount of salts are accumulated in soil, particularly in rhizosphere, due to several anthropogenic activities and environmental conditions, and crop production is severely affected. Then we refer those soils as salt-affected soil.

The need of intensive agriculture to keep pace with the increasing world population for their food requirement necessitates to bring more agricultural land area under irrigation. However, irrigation system without taking enough drainage provision and poor water quality and its poor management may make the situation worst due to the development of salt-affected soils that ensue unproductive soil and low crop yield. Crops grown on salt-affected soils suffer from high osmotic stress, nutritional disorders due to nutrient (N, Ca, K, P, Fe, Zn) deficiency, specific ion toxicities, poor soil physical conditions and as a consequence, a reduced crop productivity.

Although it is considered that the rocks and minerals on weathering lead to salt accumulation in the soil, but the salt-affected soils are not truly originated from the accumulation of such salts in situ. On the contrary, occurrence of salt-affected soils is due to receiving salts that come from other locations with water. Sea water inundation in coastal belt, irrigation with poor quality water including saline groundwater, poor drainage system, irrigation adopting unscientific ways leading to waterlogging, shallow water table etc. contribute heavily toward development of salt-affected soils. Salt-affected soils may occur under almost all climatic conditions. Their distribution, however, is relatively more extensive in the arid and semi-arid regions compared to the humid regions because of poor precipitation to leach soluble salt adequately. Since evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation in these climatic conditions, the soluble salts move upward with water due to capillary action and are left behind on the surface soil and the rhizosphere, once water is evaporated. The commanding ions of accumulated salts in affected soil are sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chlorides, sulphates, carbonates and bicarbonates. The nature and properties of salt-affected soils are so diverse that they require specific approaches for their reclamation and management. Therefore, it is necessary to know their origin, formation, nature, chemistry and properties in detail to classify them into groups for their proper management to maintain sustainable agriculture.

Silage fermentation is a complex process involving biochemical changes by microbial populations and the ensiling environment. The chemistry and microbiology of silage fermentation are linked, but the microorganisms are the dominant factor in the fermentation process, and they have the main influence on the quality of the end product. Many species of microorganisms are involved in the fermentation process, and their relative importance varies according to the prevailing conditions. As these conditions change during the fermentation process, the microorganism population changes accordingly. Lactic acid bacteria and clostridia are two main categories of microbes responsible for biochemical changes in silage.

13.1. Introduction

Water is chemically benign. However, its interference in free gas exchange in soil becomes detrimental to crop growth when soils are subjected to waterlogging or plants are submerged with water.Waterlogging of soil refers to a soil condition when the soil attains a moisture regime to such an extent that oxygen is not available in the pore space in enough quantity for plant roots to respire adequately. On the contrary, detrimental gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulphide, ethylene etc. accumulate in the root zone and adversely influence the growth of plants. Thus, anaerobic condition prevails in waterlogged soil causing depletion of oxygen and increase of CO₂ in root zone, which severely affects aerobic micro-organisms while harmful organisms proliferate and restrict the plant growth. Waterlogging leads to nutrient deficiencies or nutrient toxicities, root tip decomposition and eventually, reduced growth or death of the plant. Physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil are also disturbed due to low temperature. However, this is important to note that plants differ among themselves in their demand for oxygen. Even oxygen demand for same plants differs with its growth stage. Therefore, it is well understood that there is no universal level of soil oxygen that can identify waterlogged conditions for all plants. Mostly waterlogging prevails in the land due to non-permeability of the soil material, the presence of an impervious layer in soil horizon, or a high-water table.

If the reader has endeavoured to follow the basic chemistry in the first chapter, he would be in a positions to follow up the various reactions that take place in soils and which hitherto had baffled him. Soils contain particles of various sizes ; some so fine that they would remain suspended in water for a long time; others so coarse that they would be sieved out by even a coarse sieve. Soils contain some salts that can be washed out by leaching with water; they contain some water which can be readily evaporated away by exposing to hot sun or by heating slightly. They also con-tain a little organic matter which can be burnt away or dissolved in alkali. When all the extraneous substances have been completely removed we are left with what we might call soil framework. This framework gives mechanical support to the roots of the plants. Without this framework the plant would not stand up even if it could be supplied with all the food material.

Let us suppose a soil freed from all the extraneous matter by continuous leaching with water or a dilute acid. In the former case the removal of all the extraneous matter is extremely slow, whereas by leaching with dilute acid everything except the soil framework is removed in a short time.

When soils from different localities are subjected to leaching with dilute acid we find that the soil framework in every case, behaves in a similar manner. No matter from what part of the world the soil has been obtained, the properties of its mineral framework only differ in quantity but not in kind.

Being an essential component of the rich Indian past, traditional dairy products and a sophisticated classification of confections have played a significant role in the Indian economy. Depending on how it is processed, it has significant social, cultural, and economic significance. These products have been developed over a long period using a combination of experience, traditional wisdom, and culinary skills. India is emerging as the highest milk- producing country in the world with an annual production of 221.1 million tons in the year 2021–22 (Source: Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, MoFAHD, DAHD, GoI). An estimated 50% of the milk produced in India is used to make a range of traditional dairy products, including paneer, dahi, ghee, khoa, and shrikhand. The product is not only well- established in the Indian market, but it also has significant export potential due to the large Indian diaspora living all over the world.

All native milk products that have developed over time using locally accessible technologies are referred to as traditional Indian dairy products or Indian indigenous milk products. The Indian masses’ economic, social, religious, and nutritional well- being are greatly influenced by traditional dairy products.

Classification of Traditional Indian Dairy Products

Traditional dairy products in India are typically made, packaged, and/or sold using time- honored methods without the use of machinery or meticulous documentation of the procedure. These products do, however, have several technological advantages, including their widespread appeal, reduced cost of production, straightforward manufacturing process, adoption at the rural level or collection center, large profit margin, and abundance of employment opportunities. These products are categorized according to the manufacturing principle.

Milk is the secretion of the mammary glands of animals. For human consumption, milk is that liquid obtained from the cow or the buffalo during the period following at least 72 hours after calving or until the milk is colostrums-free. It is a complex biological fluid consisting of seven main components: water, fat, protein, sugar (lactose), minerals, vitamins and enzymes. Milk is a white opaque fluid in which fat is present as an emulsion, protein and some mineral matters in colloidal suspension and lactose together with some minerals and soluble proteins in true solution. The opacity of milk is due to its content of suspended particles of fat, proteins and certain minerals. The colour varies from white to yellow depending on the carotene content of the fat. Skimmed milk is more transparent with a slightly bluish tinge. Milk of a good flavour has a pleasant, slightly sweet taste, and no odour. It is an excellent source of calcium, phosphorous and riboflavin. Vitamin A and D are currently added to whole milk, partly skimmed and skimmed milk.

7.1 What is Chemotaxonomy?
The approach of taxonomy in which chemical features of plants are used in developing classifications or in solving taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy, chemosystematics, chemical taxonomy, chemical plant taxonomy or plant chemotaxonomy. Some of the basic chemical features or evidentiary characters include alkaloids, flavonoids, carotenoids, polysaccharides, terpenoids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds, etc.
The chemical evidences are useful in establishing relationships among taxa is exemplified (Cronquist, 1980) by the (i) Presence of aromatic plants in Juglandales, (ii) Production of betalains and not anthocyanins by the members of caryophyllales, (iii) Presence of highly aromatic compounds in the members of Lamiaceae, (iv) Presence of alkaloids in Solanaceae, and (v) Presence of tanniferous plants in Sapindaceae.
7.2 Purpose of Chemotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomy has been used at all levels of the hierarchy of classification starting from the rank of ‘variety’ up to the rank of ‘division’ in plants. Moreover, chemical evidences have been used in all the groups of the plant kingdom starting from simple organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, up to the most highly advanced and specialized groups of angiosperms. These evidences are used in the classification of plants with two main purposes, (i) To develop such taxonomic characters which may improve the existing systems of plant classification and (ii) To develop the present day knowledge of phylogeny or evolutionary relationships of plants.

Chemotherapy in Parasitology deals with the treatment of disease caused by different parasites by specific drugs; meanwhile particular drug has got the particular action against the particular parasite. Recently chemotherapy is a extensively used and emerging branch for the control of different stages of parasites that is normally not killed by the conventional methods of treatment. Thus, chemotherapy plays an important role in the treatment and control of parasitic infections by avoiding the outcome of the danger of the disease by treatment of the affected animals. They should have the maximum parasitotrophic action and minimum organotrophic action. It is mainly divided into two types: 1) Rational therapy: It is a mode of treatment based on the pharmacological actions of drugs with relation to disease. 2) Supportive therapy: It is a method of treatment other than drugs, e.g. giving high protein diet in the oedematous condition such as bottle jaw in fascioliosis and amphistomiosis. The drugs used for the killing or complete removal of the parasites from the body of the host called antiparasitic drugs.

Chemotherapy is the procedure of treating a sick or infected plant using chemicals to kill the fungus. Chemotherapy has proven successful in very few circumstances. For example, plants have been treated with antibiotics to minimise the severity of “lethal yellowing” of palm trees caused by Phytoplasma and the decline of pears. Likewise, fungicides have been used to elm trees to mitigate the effects of Ophiostoma ulmi and O? neo-ulmi, the causative agents of Dutch elm disease. The chemotherapy drugs must, however, always be given repeatedly. Systemic fungicides like sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBIS), which partially penetrate plant tissues, eradicate recent infestations.

Chemotherapeutic fungicides are a class of systemic fungicides that have some plant mobility. They are capable of eliminating diseases even in parts of the plant that were not exposed to the chemicals. Unfortunately, pathogens develop resistance to systemic fungicides because they are site-specific

Q1. The nitrogen atom of amino group in basic structure of sulfonamide is designated as

1. N1
2. N2
3. N3
4. N4

Q2. Trimethoprim produces synergistic action by interfering the synthesis of

1. Dihydrofolic acid from tetrahydrofolic acid
2. Tetrahydrofolic acid from dihydrofolic acid
3. mRNA from DNA
4. tRNA from DNA

Q3. An ophthalmic sulfonamide is

1. Sulfaguinidine
2. Sulfadimidine
3. Sulfadimethoxine
4. Sodium sulfacetamide

Cherimoya is considered as the most esteemed of the fruits of the genus Annona (family Annonaceae). A. cherimola Mill., because of its limited distribution, has acquired few colloquial names, and most are merely local variations in spelling, such as chirimoya, cherimolia, chirimolla, cherimolier, cherimoyer. The cherimoya is believed to be indigenous to the interandean valleys of Ecuador, Colombia and Bolivia. It is cultivated in Australia, Hawai, Brazil, Mexico, India, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Spain, Costa Rica, Africa and Argentina. In India it is found growing in states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, (Nilgiris and Palani hills), Karnataka (the Nandi hills) and Andhra Pradesh (Telangana region).

It bears fruits with skin which is thin or thick, may be smooth with fingerprint-like markings or covered with conical or rounded protuberances. The sweet, juicy, white flesh is melting, subacid and very fragrant. The fruit is of a primitive form with spirally arranged carpels, resembling a raspberry. Each segment of flesh surrounds a single hard black bean-like seed.

Cultivars: Fingerprinted, Smooth, Tuberculate, Mammilate and Umbonate are the cultivars having different shapes, texture and morphology.

Uses

The flesh of the ripe cherimoya is most commonly eaten out of-hand or scooped with a spoon from the cut open fruit. It really needs no embellishment but some people in Mexico like to add a few drops of lime juice. Occasionally it is added to fruit salads or used for making sherbet or ice cream. Colombians strain out the juice, add a slice of lemon and dilute with ice-water to make a refreshing soft drink. The fruit has been fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage (Morton, 1987). In Jamaica, the dried flowers have been used as flavoring for snuff. All species of Annona can produce seed oil. Essential oils extracted from soursop (pulp) have industrial applications and the oils are also thought to improve the flavour of processed fruit products.

Genus   : Prunus
Species : avium cerasus, mahaleb L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16, 24, 32

Records indicate that cherries were in cultivation ever since the beginning of civilization. Cherries exhibit vast genetic variability as is evident from the different species which vary in their ploidy level. Sweet cherries (Prunus avium L) are diploid while sour cherries (P. cerasus, L.) are tetraploid, and commercially more important than the other species. Duke cherry has resulted from hybridization between sour and sweet cherry with intermediate tree and fruit characters. Successful cherry cultivation revolves around climatic factors, prime being the extent and spread of rainfall, variation in day and night temperature, occurrence of frosts, high heat day largely determine the type of cherry that will grow successfully in a particular areas. Hence cherry improvement around the world has so far been localized to few selected areas where different cherries have been successfully grown.

1. Introduction

Cherry is the common name of several Prunus species that include sweet cherry (P. avium), tart or sour cherry (P. cerasus), Duke cherry (hybrids between P. avium and P. cerasus). Sweet cherries are believed to have originated from the area between the Black and Caspian seas of Asia Minor. Birds probably carried the seed to Europe prior to human civilization. Cultivation was probably started by the Greeks and continued by the Romans. Its distribution and naturalization have proved extensive, for it is now found wild in areas as widely spaced as northern India, the southern plains of Europe and even on isolated islands such as Madeira. Climatic conditions are the most important limitations on cherry production. Being a deciduous tree, it needs a period of dormancy, which is initiated in temperate regions mainly by a fall in average temperatures in late autumn (Mir et al., 2017). Sweet cherry is grown almost everywhere in the temperate zone. It is a composite genus. Due to its origin, this genus needs warm and light conditions, but can also endure cold winter weather. It requires 550-600 mm precipitation annually. Sweet cherry prefers medium light (pH= 5.5–7.5), deep-layered soil, which is rich in nutrients. The root system of sweet cherry requires aeration and cannot tolerate slack water (Simon, 2004). Many areas of the world, although environmentally suited to cherry production, are currently unsuited to profitable cherry production due to high perishable nature of the fruit.

Prunus avium means “Bird Cherry” in the Latin language, is commonly known as ‘Sweet cherry’. Cherries have pleased the palates of food lovers for centuries. Their ruby-red colour and tangy taste won the hearts of kings, queens and noblemen in the history, making a special place for cherries on their tables. The ultimate celebration of cherries is the National Cherry Festival. It is held every year in July in the “Cherry Capital of the World”-Traverse City, Michigan. This festival originated from a spring ceremony known as the “Blessing of the Blossoms.” Thousands of visitors come from all over the world to celebrate the harvest and of course, eat cherries. A delicious fruit, cherry is rich in protein and sugars. Cherry is an excellent source of minerals like potassium, manganese, magnesium, iron, phosphorous and copper. Good amounts of vitamins (A, B, C and K) are found in cherries. They also contain anthocyanins, melatonin and fibers. It has more calorific value than apple. 

• Native to temperate regions of Northern Hemisphere.
• Chilling requirement – 2000-2700 hr, highest among temperate fruits.
• Heavy rainfall during flowering causes – Blossom wilt.
• Heavy rainfall during ripening causes fruit cracking.
• In Europe, a wine – ‘Kirschwasser’ is distilled from the pulp of cherries.
• Most of the commercial varieties of cherry are self-sterile.
• Seedling rootstock – Pazza, Mahaleb, Mazzard
• Clonal rootstock – Colt, Mazzard, F-12/1
• Cherry fruits are the first to appear in the market among temperate fruits.
• Cherry has more calorific value them apple.
• Donar vars: Stella, Vista, Vic, Seneca, Vega.

7.1 Introduction

Cherry is one of the important temperate stone fruits of the world. It is widely grown in the cooler climates where the span of winter is wide and very much pronounced. Sweet cherry is tall, attaining a height of 18 m, and pyramidal form. The branches are usually erect, and leaves are large, thin, variable pubescent beneath and coarsely serrated. Sweet (Prunus avium L.) and sour (P. cerasus L.) cherry ripen first among stone fruits followed by apricot, peach and plum. Sweet cherry comes first on the fresh market; hence, it is in high demand during late spring and early summer. Sweet cherry cultivars with red fruit colour lead the market while cultivars of yellow, white, or blush colour are in less demand. Sour cherries have smaller fruit size and are less firm than sweet cherries. The vast majority of the sour cherries are processed. The tree of sour cherry is usually 6-9 m tall, open headed, round topped or spreading and often without a central leader. The leaves are much smaller, dark green in colour and more numerous and trees are hardier than those of sweet cherry. Diameter of sour cherry fruit is about 2 cm.

There are many cherry species, but only a few have been domesticated. The sweet cherry trees are large (30–40 feet tall) and usually pyramid shaped. Branches grow upright. The fruits are large, have a deep stem cavity, vary in colour from light yellow to dark red to purplish black. Flowers arise from clusters of 2 to 5 flowers on short spurs with multiple buds at tips; the distal bud develops into a leafy shoot. The flesh ranges in texture from tender to firm, and is sweet. Most sweet cherries are consumed as fresh fruit. The tart cherry, is sometime called “red cherry” or “sour cherry” and may have arisen from an unreduced pollen grain of Prunus avium crossed with Prunus fruiticosa. Trees are very cold hardy, but are shorter lived than sweet cherry. The fruit is relatively small, and have higher acid and lower sugar content than sweet cherry. Tart cherries are used for processing, jam, and pie filling. The Duke cherry is a hybrid of Prunus avium and Prunus cerasus and all gradations between the two species exist, but most varieties more closely resemble sweet cherry. Sweet cherries are the variety most often found in markets. They have a thick, rich, and almost plumb-like texture. Sour cherries are not usually eaten raw, but are widely used for making preserves, candy etc. Sour cherries are much smaller than sweet cherries and all varieties are self-fertile. Cherries are cultivated all over the world and the top 3 producers of cherry are Turkey, USA and Iran. The cultivated forms are of the species sweet cherry (Prunus avium) to which most cherry cultivars belong, and the another sour cherry (P. cerasus), which is used mainly for making preserve etc. Both species originate in Europe and western Asia; they do not cross pollinate. Some other species, although having edible fruit, are not grown extensively for consumption, except in northern regions where the two main species will not grow.

• The chestnut is a nutritious low in fat and rich in Vitamin B.
• Freshly harvested nuts contain about 50% moisture, 40-42% carbohydrates, 2.9% proteins and about 1.5% fats.
• All cultivars of chestnut are self-sterile.
• The Chinese chestnut is the earliest tree to bloom. The flowers are produced in two kinds of catkins borne on current season shoot near the terminal portion of the shoot.
• Three nuts are usually produced in each bun (upper, left and right).
• Botanically, each nut is a complete fruit.
• The shell of the nut develops from the ovary wall.
• It is as hardy as peach and can withstand as low as -29°C temperature in deep dormancy.
• Some species of chestnut are used as rootstock for propagation.
• Chestnut is a highly cross-pollinated and hybrid seedling used as the rootstock is a possible cause of graft union failure in chestnut. Therefore, mixed hybrid strains should not be used as rootstock.