eChapters

Fish as a cheap source of protein, bioavailable minerals, vitamins and essential fatty acids, ensures global nutritional security. India witnessed around 14-fold increment in fish production from 0.7 million tonnes in 1950’s to 10.43 million tonnes in 2014-15. With a contribution of 5.05% to world’s capture production and 6.6% of total aquaculture fish production, India emerged as one among the most progressive fish producing countries in the world. Fisheries as a major agricultural sector, constitutes 0.92% of total GDP and 5.58% of total agricultural GDP of India. With the global fish export value of 148,147 million USD, India ranked seventh position among the top fish exporters of the world. The sector is crucial in securing food supply, job opportunities, nutritional needs and earning foreign exchange for the country, cataloguing it as a sunrise sector of Indian economy.

Technological developments in harvest sector

Introduction of new materials for fishing gears, mechanization of fishing crafts and modern electronic technologies for navigation and fish location, paved way for the significant increase in fish production in India over the years. ICAR-CIFT, Cochin has been involved in the design and optimization of a range of crafts and gears since its inception, which gave a major fillip to the harvest sector of Indian fisheries. Considering the plateauing/decline in catches perceptible since last two decades, ICAR-CIFT has shifted its focus from increasing production to responsible harvest of resources. As a result a large number of technologies for sustainable harvest and green technologies with reduced emissions were developed.

Palatable: Having a good or at least a tolerable flavour. Some plants, although not poisonous, simply do not taste good and animals avoid them, for example, the leaves of Prosopis juliflora. Others are so highly palatable that establishing the tree can become difficult, for example, Leucaena leucocephala. Hence ‘palatability’. See also Digestibility.

Palm: Member of the aracaceae (previously palmae) family, containing over 200 genera and more than 2700 species, many of them economically important for food, fibre, canes, waxes, wood, thatch, and so forth. Typical agroforestry tree.

Fermentation plays a major role in our diet and give the basic foods like bread, yoghurt, wine and cereal and legume based traditional fermented foods. The development of fermented food products can be considered as one of the greatest achievements of human civilization and goes back thousands of years. It arose from the necessity to conserve foods, to make them more digestible and also more enjoyable. During the centuries, man learned by trial and error to conduct the fermentation processes by changing physical and chemical parameters in the basic food ingredients. It took much longer, however, to discover the cause of fermentation processes: only towards the end of the 19th century it was demonstrated, that baker’s yeast is the cause of alcoholic fermentation. Through the development of the technique of "pure microbial culture", the basis for a controlled use of microbes in food industry was established.

The unique feature of fermented foods is the vital role of microorganisms that bring about essential bio-trasformations of the substrates during fermentation contributing number of desirable properties such as improved product shelf life, enriched diet with improved flavor and texture, increased safety, enriched nutritional supplement and probiotic functions. Fermentation is a chemical reaction carried out by many types of microorganisms to obtain energy. Fermentation is a process for production of a product by means of mass culture of microorganisms. In fermentation, microorganisms breakdown complex organic compounds into simpler substances. Although chemical changes and microbial growth usually mean food spoilage, in some cases fermentation is desirable and microorganisms are actually added to foods. For example, in the production of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages, yeasts convert sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the making of yogurt and cheese, lactic acid bacteria convert lactose, a sugar found in milk, to lactic acid. Alcohol, acids, and other compounds produced in fermentation act as preservatives, inhibiting further microbial growth. In addition to its use with alcoholic beverages, cheese, and yoghurt, fermentation is used to produce yeast bread, soy sauce, cucumber pickles, sauerkraut, and other traditional fermented food products. The variation in agroclimatic conditions prevailing in India and diverse form of dietary culture of various ethnical groups produced traditional fermented foods such as idli, dosa (rice-legume based), vada, papad, wari, balle (legume based), bhatura, jelabi, nan (wheat based), paneer, shrikhand (milk based).

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa), the staple food of more than half of the population of the world, is an important target to provide food security and livelihoods for millions. As a major producer and exporter of rice in the world, India reportedly produces around 152.60 MT tonnes of rice per year. When cereal crops are harvested, it is estimated that half of the process ends with agricultural waste or crop residue as straw. It is a non-edible product, often left in the field after harvesting. Traditionally, paddy straw was seen as a versatile by-product of rice cultivation because it was used in many ways including fodder for livestock and as a building material. However, the increase in productivity and area under cultivation of rice has led to a huge production of rice straw. Moreover, mechanization decreased the animal dependency and hence the feed requirement. So the most effective way of disposing of the residue is seen as burning of biomass in the paddy field. It is important to mention that open field burning is a widely practiced method all over the world however its intensity varies. For instance (National Conference, 2017) estimated that less than a quarter of rice straw is probably burnt in India compared to around half in Thailand whereas the entire residue is burnt in the Philippines. Taking farmers view into account, burning is not only a cost-effective method but it acts as an effective pest control procedure Shukla et al (2005). The short term effects of burning seems more desirable than those from soil incorporation due to the immobilization of inorganic nitrogen which occurs in the latter and can adversely affect productivity in the short term (Singh and Singh, 2001). Also, it helps to reduce diseases that may occur due to reinjection from inoculums in the straw biomass Haysa et al. (2005).The burning of rice crop residue causes atmospheric pollution by emitting trace gases which forms ‘Black Cloud’ adversely affects human health as well as environment. The air pollutants are also a hazard to people’s health particularly to those within local proximity to paddy areas. It is clear from Table 1 that crop residue is a good source of nutrients and important component for the stability of agricultural ecosystems. About 40% of the N, 30-35% of the P, 80-85% of the K and 40-50% of the S absorbed by rice remain in the vegetative parts at maturity.

Concept of Education

Education is derived from the Latin terms Educare (Educere) and Educatum. The word “educare” means to train, nourish, or shape. “Educere” means “to lead froth, to pull out.” The Latin term “Educatum” refers to the act of teaching. “Shiksha” and “Vidya” are two significant Sanskrit words that stand out as equivalents of English education. Shiksha is a word derived from “Shah,” which means “to control or discipline.” The term “Vidhya” is derived from the word “Vidh,” which means “knowledge.” During the ancient schooling period, the most essential aspects of human personality were discipline and knowledge.

Introduction

The definition of the teaching-learning process, also known as the education process, is a methodical, planned sequence of events that both the teacher and the student follow in order to accomplish the goals of teaching and learning. In primary education, values education is taught through games. Extension services are vital to the global rural and agricultural communities because they spread knowledge, offer useful skills, and encourage sustainable practices. The teaching and learning process, a dynamic exchange between extension agents and community members with the goal of enabling people to better their lives and livelihoods, is at the centre of these extension efforts.

In irrigated agriculture, water is the most important and precious input among all the inputs required for the biological activities of the plant. It is also a key input not only for ensuring food security but also for sustainable socio economic development. Water plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural production and provides food security. On a global scale, 97.5% of water resources are salty ocean water, with only only 2.5% being fresh water. The bulk of the latter occurs in the polar ice and glaciers, as well as deep aquifers, some in water bodies like rivers and lakes, and in soil moisture. On the whole, less than 1% of the world’s fresh water resources are available for human use. The world’s average annual precipitation of about 1100 mm, marked by wide variation in water availability, is creating a great divide in regions, resulting in plenty of regimes and scare/acute shortage regions.

In India, the average annual precipitation, including snowfall, is 4000 billion cubic meter (bcm), of which water availability in the river systems is estimated at 1869 bcm, and out of which only 1122 bcm can be used. About 690 bcm is surface water and 432 bcm is ground water. As compared to the world’s average annual rainfall of 1100 mm, India receives 1170 mm, which is highly erratic and uncertain in both time and space. Thus, in India, very limited fresh water is available for use because of competitive and conflicting demand from the agriculture, industry, power, and domestic sectors, which is expected to increase from 10.7% in 1990 to 22.5% in 2025. While that of agriculture will decrease from 89.3% in 1990 to 77.6% in 2025. The projected requirement of water for use by the different sectors shows an increase in energy and industry as compared to the domestic and irrigation sectors by 2025, indicating a growing scarcity of water availability in the future.

Abstract
The growing global population has intensified farming practices, increasing the use of fossil fuels and agrochemicals. With limited land and the need to enhance food production, balancing environmental impact, especially carbon footprints, is crucial. Climate-smart mitigation options, with a prime emphasis on crop diversification, can help agriculture adapt to anomalous weather patterns and build resilience. Legumes offer a sustainable solution by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as they produce 5-7 times less gases per unit area compared to other crops. They aid in carbon sequestration, with soil carbon estimates of 7.21 g kg-1 of dry matter, and save fossil energy by decreasing nitrogen fertilizer use, reducing CO2 emissions by 277 kg ha-1 per year. Legumes play a key role in low-emission farming systems due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, reducing dependence on energy-intensive synthetic fertilizers. They improve soil health, enhance soil structure, and support carbon sequestration. Integrating legumes into crop rotations reduces the need for chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Additionally, legumes can be used in food, feed, and biofuels, lowering reliance on more carbon-intensive resources. Embracing legumes in farming systems promotes sustainability improves soil health, and considerably reduces the overall environmentalimpact of agriculture.
Keywords: Carbon Footprint, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Legumes Sustainability

The numerical based on simple mathematics like divide, multiply, sum, deduction, under root, percentage etc are given below to sharpen the inherent ability of the students. This simplication is a very good exercise to aqcquaint the students about basic mathmetics so that they can solve tough questions quickly. Therefore some tips are given below for solving the questions.

Introduction 
Crop-weather models are sophisticated constructs, meticulously designed to replicate the dynamic and intricate interplay among atmospheric conditions, complex soil processes, nuanced plant physiology, and the decisive influence of human management interventions. The agricultural system is a prime example of a highly interconnected and non-linear system, where changes in one component can ripple through and affect many others, often with time lags and feedback loops. To truly comprehend, effectively design, rigorously develop, and clearly communicate the inner workings of such multifaceted simulations, relying solely on dense textual descriptions or abstract mathematical equations can prove daunting and often insufficient. This is precisely where relationship diagrams emerge as indispensable tools. At their core, relationship diagrams are powerful visual representations that translate the abstract scientific concepts and mathematical formulations embedded within crop-weather models into intuitive graphical formats. They are essentially the architectural blueprints and flowcharts of these complex systems, allowing us to see, rather than just read, how various components of the agricultural ecosystem interact. Imagine trying to understand the intricate wiring of a skyscraper or the precise movements of a symphony orchestra purely from a written description; diagrams provide the essential visual mapping that brings clarity and coherence to complexity. These diagrams are not mere aesthetic additions; they are fundamentally required because of the inherent complexity and interdisciplinary nature of crop modeling. They bridge critical gaps: Bridging Disciplinary Gaps: Agricultural system modeling brings together experts from diverse fields – agronomists who understand plant responses, meteorologists who provide weather insights, soil scientists who grasp soil physics and chemistry, and computer scientists who implement the models.

Key facts

    
•    Though water is the most widely occurring substance on earth, freshwater accounts for only 2.5% whereas the rest of water is saltwater. The agriculture sector uses more than 75% of freshwater available. 
    
•    The current observed climate change impacts on water resources include increased precipitation at high latitudes and temperate areas, decreasing precipitation at low latitudes; decreasing snow covers, and glaciers in most regions; decreasing flows in some river basins; floods and droughts in some countries and significant decreases in lake and river size in Africa.
    
•    A number of climate models projected that a doubling of atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ would increase global precipitation by at least 5%.  The precipitation is expected to increase in some areas, such as, at high latitudes and in the tropics (south east monsoon regions and over the tropical Pacific), whereas the precipitation is likely to decrease in the sub-tropics (e.g. much of North Africa and northern Sahara).

INTRODUCTION

Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a branch of the field in computer science known as “Artificial Intelligence (AI)”. The field goes by many names, such as connectionism, parallel distributed processing, neuro-computing, machine learning, and artificial neural networks. A tremendous growth in interest of this computational mechanism has occurred since Rumelhart(1986) rediscovered a mathematically rigorous theoretical framework neural network. Traditional (physically-based) modeling of physical processes tries to explain the underlying processes. On the contrary, the data-driven models are based on a limited knowledge of the modeling process and rely on the data describing input and output characteristics. Data-driven models are based on pure relationships between input and output data and not the physical principle linking input and output. They offer real advantages over conventional methods, including the ability to handle large amounts of dynamic, non-linear or noisy data and such tools can be especially useful when the underlying relationship are not fully understood. Data-driven modeling uses results from such overlapping fields as data mining, artificial neural networks, rule-based type approaches such as expert systems, fuzzy logic concepts, and machine learning systems.

Artificial neural networks are suited to problems where relationships between the variables to be modeled are not well understood. Mathematically, an ANN may be treated as a universal approximator. The ability to learn and generalize ‘Knowledge’ from sufficient data pairs make it possible for ANN to solve large-scale complex problems such as non-linear modeling, pattern recognition, classification, control and others – all of which find application in water resources management today. Since the early nineties, ANNs have been successfully used in water management area such as rainfall-runoff modeling, stream flow prediction, groundwater modeling, water quality, hydrologic time series, and reservoir operation.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mushrooms are edible fungi of commercial importance and their cultivation has emerged as a promising agro-based land-independent enterprise. There are about 20 varieties of mushrooms being cultivated throughout the world for food. In India, only white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus J.E. Lange Imbach), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp. [Fr.] P. Kumm) and paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea [Bul.] Singer) are grown commercially. Of these, white button mushroom contributes ~90% of the total production. Mushrooms have been recognized as an alternate source of good quality protein and produce the highest quantity of protein per unit area from agro-wastes. Besides, they provide potentiality for generating employment, improving economic status of growers, help in checking pollution and earn foreign exchange.

Out of the total production about 45% of mushrooms produced are consumed in the fresh form while the other 55% are processed, with 5% in dehydrated form and 50% in canned form. This is because their shelf-life in the fresh form is very short and hence mushrooms are traded in the world market mostly in the processed form. Fruiting bodies (reproductive phase) of Agaricus are appreciated not only for texture and flavour but also for their chemical and nutritional characteristics.

The profitability of dairy animals depends on milk yield and reproductive efficiency. High-yielding cows require more nutrients to support increased milk production. However, early lactating cows and buffaloes often face a Negative Energy Balance (NEB) due to inadequate energy intake, which hampers their performance. To enhance productivity, it is essential to minimize the extent and duration of NEB. One effective approach is the use of bypass nutrients, which safeguard essential dietary components like fat and protein from rumen fermentation, enabling better digestion and absorption in the lower digestive tract. Additionally, protected starch, chelated minerals, and vitamins can also boost animal performance.
“Bypass Nutrients” are nutrients that undergo minimal fermentation in the rumen, allowing them to remain intact for digestion and absorption in the lower gastrointestinal tract. These slowly degradable nutrients provide a steady nutrient supply to rumen microbes, unlike easily soluble nutrients that lead to sudden spikes in nutrient availability.
Rationale behind the protection of dietary nutrients
The potential benefits of delivering nutrients directly to the intestine in a form available for direct absorption and utilization by the animals are:
1. Prevention of energy losses associated with the degradation and fermentation of nutrients in the rumen, thus sparing available energy for productive purposes.
2. Ensuring that particular nutrients will be available to the host animal in their original form.
3. Taste masking of unpalatable substances.
4. Preventing interactions among nutrients and their oxidation during storage.

Abstract

Rise in global energy demand has led to an increase in consumption of fossil fuels. In recent years, there has been an increasing awareness about the consequences of pollution and global warming caused by burning of fossil fuels. This has led to an increased interest in the search for sustainable energy. Transportation sector is a major consumer of world’s energy resources. n-Butanol is one of the most promising alternative bio-fuels which has various advantages over other biofuels. The microbial n-butanol is produced by anaerobic conversion of the substrate to n-butyric acid and subsequently utilized to form n-butanol. The present chapter explores the scope of bacterial butanol production as need of the hour and its use as an alternative biofuel.

Introduction

Plant growth and productivity are adversely affected by various abiotic stresses. Plants are frequently exposed to a plethora of stress conditions such as low temperature, salt, drought, flooding, heat, and oxidative stress. Various anthropogenic activities have accentuated the existing stress factors. All these stress factors prevent them from reaching their full genetic potential and limit the crop productivity. In the event of growing concerns of uncertainties in climatic conditions, the abiotic stresses have become the major threat to agriculture production worldwide (Bray et al., 2000). The plant responses to abiotic stress condition are believed to be complex in nature as these are the reflections of integration of stress effects and responses at various levels of plant organization. To provide tolerance against stresses, plants are equipped with several inbuilt physiological and biochemical mechanisms occurring at cellular level. An understanding of processes linked to these mechanisms is vital in optimizing the crop growth and productivity under stress conditions.

Enzyme histochemistry constitutes a link between biochemistry and morphology (Hardonk et al., 1976) and provides important information complementary to conventional histology, immunohistochemistry and molecular pathology (Meier Ruge and Bruder 2008). It helps to detect any metabolic changes in tissues and thus can aid in disease diagnosis. It is based on the principal that, the substrates added to tissue are metabolized by enzyme and the reaction is visualized by an insoluble dye product. It is a very sensitive technique that detects even an early metabolic imbalance in the tissue. For example, alkaline phosphatase activity represents tissue barrier functions in brain capillaries, duodenal enterocyte and proximal kidney tubule brush borders and a decrease in enzyme activity will indicate some functional impairment. Similarly, an increase in lysosomal acid phosphatase activity is an early marker of ischemic tissue lesions and acetylcholinesterase enzyme histochemistry has been used for the diagnosis of Hirschsprung disease (Meier Ruge and Bruder, 2008). ATPase methods are used in combination to distinguish between type1 and type 2 muscle fibres and NADH diaphorase is used to detect very minor or early structural abnormality in the sarcoplasmic reticulum network of the fiber, as well as mitochondrial abnormalities eg. Mitochondrial myopathies (Sargaiyan and Bansal, 2014). It has been clearly shown that tumor tissue with high glycolytic activity is particularly resistant to radiotherapy (Mathupala et al., 2007). Enzyme histochemistry for dehydrogenase provides a quick, efficient and inexpensive orientation on the actual energy metabolism of a particular tumor and thus aid in therapeutic strategy (Nakagawa et al., 2002).
For the histoenzymic localization, fresh frozen unfixed tissues preferably 2 to 5 mm square size should be collected immediately after death/slaughtering of animals. Fixation in formalin will inactivate most of enzymes but formalin fixation is also employed to stop enzyme activity of lactic dehydrogenase and

Introduction

Taxonomy, which includes identification and classification has transformed into systematics and biosystematics in the recent times and is integrating itself into the biodiversity, which is now a global phenomenon occupying the main thrust of human life. The magnitude and cause of this biodiversity is the central problem of taxonomy and one of the key problems of science as a whole, not to speak of pest management. The science of taxonomy started in the late eighteenth century by a Swedish biologist, Carl Linnaeus who with a small number of similar minded scientists pioneered a standard system of using two Latin names for an organism, denoting “genus” and “species” that is still in use. This led to referring of biological organisms by an universally agreed name and identity, and further providing means for their realistic classifications. When these identifications and classifications got strengthened further with accumulated biological knowledge, it allowed the development of modern biology on a sustainable and stable base. In addition, in the recent times taxonomy has become more demanding subject for areas in science and technology, which are dependant on access to accumulated experience and knowledge for their survival and development. Insect pest management is one such area where taxonomy provides the essential scientific basis, without having any claims of its own and integrating itself in such a manner that its role is difficult to delineate precisely.

Key facts

    
•    Fish is an important source of animal protein for billions of people (estimate 2.6 billion people). About 200 million people and their dependants worldwide, mostly in developing countries, live by fishing and aquaculture. 
    
•    Fish living in temperate and Polar Regions could be benefited from climate changes since an increase in water temperature would extend the fish growing season. Moreover, rising temperature could reduce over-wintering stress normally experienced by temperate fishes.
    
•    Rise of temperature may cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO) or hypoxic conditions (as temperature and DO are inversely related) and can impair fish reproduction and may cause endocrine disruption in fish (increase incidence of malformations and may alter sex differentiation and sex determination in fish).
    
•    Bioavailability and toxicity of common pollutants such as pesticides and heavy metals may be enhanced with increasing temperatures. Therefore, exposure of toxicants at elevated temperatures may cause a decline in recreational and commercial fisheries.

Introduction

Fermentation has been an integral part of food processing throughout the history of mankind. In beginning, it was mainly preservation method, then it became key process in substantial sensory characteristic development and now it is utilized to improve overall properties of outcome from major industries like bakery, dairy, beverages, etc. The human understanding of controlled fermentation process changes its fundamental objective by exploring its success in development of rheological and texture characteristics.

The biochemical transformation of raw food due to fermentation affects the organoleptic as well as rheological properties of a product. The changes in rheological as well as sensory properties is related with the modification of major component by the action of microorganism. For example, transformation of polysaccharides in bread dough by action of yeast produce ethanol, CO₂ and other simple compound which modify sensory as well as rheology of dough. The major micro-structural, bio-compositional and bio-chemical changes are due to microbial action are frequently described to understand the effect of fermentation on rheological as well as sensory properties of food products. The rate and quality of these associated major changes mainly depends upon concentration of saccharides for growth of microorganism as well as nature and existing microflorae. Hence, a proper monitoring of changes in rheological and sensory properties is necessary to optimize the controlled fermentation as well as design of process parameters from engineering and consumer point of view.

The biochemical changes directly responsible for changes in basic rheological and sensory characteristic including flow behavior, consistency, viscoelastic properties, hardness, adhesiveness, color, aroma, flavor and mouthfeel. The food industry is so diverse and exploring new and possibilities to catch diverse consumer worldwide, a proper understanding of effect of fermentation on mentioned properties will be key to hold competitive market. Hence, the present chapter will cover the basics of rheology and its role in food industry, effect of fermentation on rheological and sensory attributes of major class of food.