eChapters

Introduction

India is an agrarian society where 70% of the population depends on agriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries. Fishery is an important sector, its planning and development largely depends on a sound and reliable data and information on resource, production, marketing and distribution. Generating reliable information basically needs identification, conceptualization, classification and sound scientific techniques for collection, compilation and analysis of data. Geographical Information System emerged as an efficient tool to access, organize, update and analyse the information and to utilize it in an optimal way.

A proper computer based information system is the need of day to organize such complex data in order to draw reliable conclusions which may help in drawing action programmes. This multidimensional nature of information on topography, physico-chemical parameters, socio-economics and fish production data can only be handled and processed by Geographical Information System (GIS).

Introduction

The major potential areas for inland aquaculture have already been explored in India. Additional production can only be achieved through successful manipulation of available resources that influence the productivity of various aquaculture systems. This can be achieved through maintenance of adequate levels of nutrients in the pond environment. Pond management in fish culture is mainly concerned with fertilization requirements and strategies with better management practices (BMP) of pond soil and water quality. BMP could be achieved through adoption of advanced technology, computer based diognostic/decision tools, software packages for quick, accurate, authetic data management.

Introduction

Of the five human sensory perceptions, the feelings of sight, hearing and touch have been simulated by artificial sensors quite successfully. Electronic eyes (digital cameras), electronic ears (microphones) and touch sensitive electronic devices are quite common nowadays. In comparison to these devices, the perception of smell and taste are relatively unexplored. Sensing of smell and taste is full of uncertainty and the prevalent technology is at its infancy. Electronic noses for smell and electronic tongues for taste or a combination of both have vast prospects in the field of standardization of quality of food and agro products. In India, proper use of these instruments can revolutionize the quality of the food and agro products, thereby increase the export worthiness of these products. In this article, we have tried to discuss applicability various electronic olfaction technologies like electronic nose and electronic tongue for fish freshness determination. A report on an experiment with electronic nose on fish samples has been presented.

Nanotechnology: The Next Big Thing is Really Small

Nanotechnology can be considered as a brainchild of Richard Feynman, as the conceptual underpinings of nanotechnologies were first laid out in 1959 in his historical lecture, ‘ There is plenty of room at the bottom’. The term ‘nanotechnology’ was not used until 1974, when a researcher, Norio Taniguchi, at the University of Tokyo, Japan, used it to refer to the ability to engineer materials precisely at the nanometer level. The prefix ‘nano’ is derived from the Greek word ‘drawf’. One nanometer (nm) is equal to one billionth of a meter or about the width of six carbon atoms or ten water molecules. A human hair is approximately 80,000 nm wide and a red blood cell is approximately 7000 nm wide¹. Nanotechnology can be defined as the science and engineering involved in the design, synthesis, characterization and application of materials and devices whose smallest functional organization in at least one dimension is on the nanometer scale or one billionth of a meter^2-5. It is a multidisciplinary field, which covers a vast, and diverse array of devices derived from Engineering, Physics, Chemistry and Biology and the cumulative efforts of all the disciplines is necessary for any significant outcome.

Introduction

Technologies and tools that have developed in the recent information technology revolution can play a very vital role in overcoming most of the present problems related to agriculture and rural development. In order to achieve the goal of an economically sound and stable society through environmentally friendly systems of agricultural production, it is imperative to have a comprehensive data storage system. This will not only help in providing systematic and periodic information to the planners, decision-makers and developmental agencies, but also help to manage our limited natural resources efficiently. The development of a data warehouse is one of the recent tools in the field of information technology that can fulfill the demands of the information that is required in the field of agriculture research, management and education

Introduction

The development of DNA technology over the last few decades has led to generation of huge amount of data from plant and animal genome. The main sources of markers are mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA), minisatellites, micro satellites and anonymous nuclear sequences assayed using highly specific PCR primers or by using the RAPD technique. A major contribution comes from molecular markers used for analyzing genetic variations. There has been the infusion of computers, softwares and online databases into the daily activities of many molecular geneticists. The identification of abundant, highly variable loci, detectable by a wide variety of techniques has led to a revolution in the way researcher view and analyses levels of variation. We will here discuss about current computer programs in this area to characterize the DNA profiles and data analysis for intra and inter population structure, phylogenetic inference and parentage determination.

Introduction

In this computer age software plays a vital role in speeding up the research activity. Software and databases help in storage, processing and accessing large volumes of information. Software helps to retrieve right information at the right time at the right place for the right purpose. The time of researchers is very precious. Instead of spending it in monotonous and tedious tasks, it could be used more effectively for new findings. With the advent of computer and its softwares, this problem could be overcome to a considerable extent.

Software is a set of instructions given to the computer to perform certain tasks. In this era of information technology, its essential to apply different softwares to speed up the research activity. It is therefore, utmost importance to have information about the different software already developed in the area of fisheries/aquaculture worldwide. Almost all the routine tasks which the scientists or the farmers are doing, could be automated in the areas like financial & economic analysis, development planning and project appraisal, facility design, management planning and production forecasting, facility construction, management decision support and record keeping, disease diagnosis and treatment, environmental regulation and aquaculture databases. FAO, World Fish Centre and other International Research Organisations have contributed software and database development in the area of aquaculture (Anon, 1999; ICLARM, 1998; FAO, 1999; Erist, 1998). In India also initiative to develop software and database has been taken up. Preliminary report on the availability of fishery related software and databases are available (Roy, 2000). In this communication, an attempt has been made to list softwares and databases that may be used in fisheries and aquaculture research and development/activities.

Introduction

Improvements in Information and Communication technology are revolutionizing the way people access information. These new technologies are helping to improve communication, disseminate information and facilitate sharing of knowledge and skills. Zijp (1994) notes, Information Technology is making both public and private sector agricultural information systems more accessible and more rapid in transmission. The increase in electronic information and communication technologies and in particular networked information is the most notable change to affect the working practices of information professionals in recent years. Digital technologies have led to the emergence of wide-area connectivity through the Internet, making information on agriculture available worldwide and on-demand. Information technology and electronic networking particularly can strengthen organizations by improving their knowledge base and ability to share information and experiences with partners in the field. Electronic networking not only helps in the exchange of the growing volume of information but also brings people together in partnerships and facilitates a joint programme of action on common themes.

Introduction

Fish and the aquaculture products contribute a significant amount of animal protein to the diet of the people worldwide. Being highly nutritive they serve as valuable food supplement in diets lacking essential vitamins and minerals. Besides its role of food security, fish is a source of income for millions of people around the World. Though the trade is not prominent at Global level, in some countries its contribution to foreign currency earning is vital to the National Economy. India has a coastline measuring 7500 km and important aquaculture country in the World. Being the home for more than 10% of the global fish biodiversity, the country ranks third in the World in the total fish production with an annual fish production of about 6.4 million tones. Constituting over the 1% of the GDP, fisheries contributes to 5.3% of the agricultural GDP. The estimated foreign earning for the year 2006 was US$ 1365 million.

Introduction

We shall discuss in this section some of the fundamental Statistical Tests that may be applied in the field of research in Aquaculture. Introduction to tests of hypothesis, test procedures and the concept of decision making are also covered here. At the outset, stages of research process and different formulae are briefly enlisted, for a quick reference by the young researchers. Later, a detail discussion is made on various fundamental statistical tests, including one-way and two-way ANOVA.

Research Methodology

What is Research

A good researcher should first feel/realize the importance/relevance of the research, he is undertaking. It should be quite convincingly clear to him particularly on the issue of “why” such research.

Introduction

A careful compilation and scrutiny of data of aquaculture variables is essential for appropriate statistical analysis and meaningful statistical inference and interpretation of results. In nature, many aquaculture variables are inter-related with each other and the changes in variables would often depend on different variables which are either correlated or independent. In some cases, the variables could also be intra-related over a period of time. For statistical analysis of data of aquaculture variables comprising of different physical growth variables like fish weight, body mass, length and bio-chemical growth variables like muscle protein, lipid, glycogen, protease etc. and variables like pond size, water and its quality, the environmental parameters, type of feed, chemicals used etc., appropriate statistical procedures of correlation and regression could be explored for statistical analysis, testing and interpretation of results. Different statistical procedures are used for analysis of aquaculture data with the objective of making an assessment of

Introduction

In almost all biological studies, it will be impossible to account for every individual in a population. Therefore, it is necessary to examine a sub-group of the total population and extrapolate from this to the whole population. The process by which the sub-group of the population is selected is sampling. Nearly, all statistical tests make a fundamental assumption that sampling of individual will be at random from all the individuals that could possibly be sampled. It is very important that timing is taken into account either by sampling strategy or by later analysis. Most population will be affected by season, time of day and local weather conditions.

What is considered here is the problem faced by an ecologist working in the field and trying to design a suitable sampling strategy. The use of the very powerful statistical technique; analysis of variance (ANOVA) is more common in the situation of a controlled experiment, where, we are analyzing the effects of different levels of a treatment (e.g. feed, fertilizer, temperature etc.) on some measured aspect of population, Then, to get a true estimate of the effect of the treatment, experimental design will be of paramount importance.

Introduction

The method of obtaining the data for each and every unit belonging to the population or universe, which is the aggregate of all units of a given type under consideration, is known as complete enumeration survey or complete census. Examples of units are family, a period of time such as an hour, day, fishing village, fishing household, fishing establishment, fishing boat, fish landing centres etc. The type of unit to be considered would depend on the purpose of the view. The population may be finite or infinite. It is obvious that for any statistical investigation complete enumeration of the population is rather impracticable. For example, if we want to have an idea of the total catch of fish (monthly) in India, we will have to enumerate all the fishers who catch fish in the country, which is rather a very difficult task. If the population is infinite, complete enumeration is not possible. In addition, if the units are destroyed in the course of inspection, 100% inspection though possible, is not at all desirable. However, even if the population is finite or the inspection is not destructive, complete enumeration is not taken because it is time-consuming, expensive, and as well as it needs a large amount of resources in terms of trained personnel.

The need for better analytical tools to analyze the data in aquaculture leads to major developments in statistics. These tools play a significant role in the analysis and interpretation of data. Improvement in carp culture through genetic techniques is the only alternative for increasing the carp production and its quality when area of pond is fixed. For better hybrids or efficient strains for higher production it is essential to collect the data on the genetic diversity among the different carp species on the basis of traits. Therefore, sound statistical procedures are needed in the design of experiments as well as in the analysis of the data. This involves, the use of variability studies and the use of multivariate statistical techniques like correlations, path coefficients, D² analysis and other classificatory analysis.

Introduction

India possesses rich fish germplasm resources, accounting for about one-tenth of the 20,000 and odd species of fish known in the world. The Ganga network of rivers in the North, the Brahmaputra and the Mahanadi in the East, the Sutlej, the Narmada & the Tapti in the West and, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery in the South are very rich sources, harbouring bulk of the important fish fauna. (Jhingran, 1982).

The major carps of India which are also referred to as Gangetic carps are the most important among the commercial fish species and form the major component of the aquaculture system in the country (Jhingran, 1982). Since the last two to two and a half decades, there was a steady progress in carp farming in India due to the availability of seed of the major carps and the development of different packages of culture technologies (Chaudhuri et al. 1975).

Introduction

Information Technology (IT) is a relatively-recent gift of Science and Technology for the mankind, revolutionising even the basic perception of people. It is a boon to the ever-growing complexities of life in each sphere. Be it simple household chores to the complex and humanly impossible task of advanced space research, Bioinformatics is the application of Information Technology in the field of bio- or life-sciences. The advantages from this fusion of two sciences are many. Bioinformatics in particular, and information technology revolution in general have been a grace to today’s biological researchers, particularly the groups involved in experiments at micro level, be it microorganisms (such as bacteria) of microbiologists or macromolecules (of micro/nano size, such as DNA/RNA) of geneticists/molecular biologists or the nanotechnologists. For example, computer software package IMPAC (Interactive Modeling Package for Carbohydrates) has its applications in the modeling of 3-D structure of carbohydrates. MYCIN is another package popular amongst medical doctors for diagnosis of bacteriological diseases and to prescribe treatments.

Introduction

Data collection, compilation and analysis of Aquaculture data has a major role to play in Aquaculture research. The time spent in collecting, compiling, analysing statistical data and taking appropriate timely action creates a gap in aquaculture. Therefore timely action is very much essential. This gap can be reduced by taking help of computers in collection, compilation and analysis of statistical data which will save time as well as manpower and will help in taking appropriate action in appropriate time. Electronic spreadsheet has a major role to play in this context even if the user is having little or no programming knowledge. The most widely used office automation package is one of the components which consists of spreadsheet application, in which accounting, balance sheet calculations, statistical data analysis, graphical presentations, etc. are possible with few key strokes and mouse operation only. EXCEL has several capabilities which include opening of a workbook; entering and editing data; building formulas to calculate values; managing list of data; formatting data; creating a chart; saving a workbook; opening and saving files from other spreadsheets; linking documents from other spreadsheets, data analysis, etc.

Introduction

Fish is a renewable natural resource. It is a significant part of the domestic food supply which amount of foreign exchange. Export of fish and fish products has expanded very significantly. Fish earns increasing farming is an important component of India’s rural economy. Inland fisheries including rivers and ponds produce about 35 to 40 percent of the total fish harvest of the country. Fresh water aquaculture belongs to the unorganised traditional sector, which consists of many socio economically weak fishermen and small-scale fish farming units that use traditional methods of fish culture. Fish farming faces dual problem of conservation and development. Conservation may be defined as an approach to resource management that seeks to leave fish resources relatively untouched. Development on the other hand amounts to the use and modification of fish resources. It may involve transformation of fish resources. It is considered as a renewable resources because with proper management it can be made to yield direct services indefinitely into the future. But its renewability does not imply that it is free from pressing problem of over exploitation and total depletion.

Introduction

Quantification of costs and revenues is necessary to evaluate farm performance in aquaculture at experimental station level. Such calculations aided by economic engineering methods can help in determining the most appropriate package of technologies for different categories of farmers in different geographical locations. The method described below is based on the works of T.V.R. Pillay (Aquaculture: Principles and Practices). The computation of capital cost (initial cost), annual operating cost (variable cost plus fixed cost), and gross revenue (income) shows the performance of aquaculture farms. In this chapter an attempt has been made to illustrate the above mentioned useful fundamental economic indicators along with the computational procedure of assessment of economic feasibility of aquacultural projects which is very important for any entrepreneur.

Introduction

In view of the existence of productive agro-climatic and soil-morphological conditions, a dynamic estuarine river system and unique network of productive brackishwater aquaculture has emerged in the coastal states of India. It is immensely suitable for the shrimp/shrimp+fish culture providing high valued export quality shrimp. The Indian contribution of world shrimp export is at 6% (Katiha et al., 2003). Unfortunately, investment in shrimp farming has slowed down (Hempel, 2000) in recent years due to lack of interest among the entrepreneurs. Therefore, it is pertinent to work out and compare the economic feasibility of various shrimp farming system. Studies on cost and return for shrimp production are scanty, therefore, in depth analysis with identification of bottlenecks, yield gaps and constraints is the need of hour. It may lead to harness the potential for shrimp farming through inculcating entrepreneurs’ interest. This may also help the financial institutions for reconsidering loan procedure and further investment in this enterprise. Considering, over one third of national potential area for the enterprise and its sustainability over past decade, the study mainly concentrates on shrimp farming in the state of West Bengal.

Introduction

Aquaculture resources in India is vast in the form of ponds and tanks of 2.35 million ha, reservoirs of 3.15 million ha, oxbow lakes and derelict waters of 1.3 million ha and brakishwaters of 1.24 million ha. At present, the total fish production is 6.4 mmt. Out of which inland fish production is 3.4 mmt. The total aquaculture production of 2.47 million tonnes that constitutes 4.2% of global production was valued at US$ 2.9 billion (FAO, 2006). Ponds and tanks are the prime resources for aquaculture, however only about 0.8 – 0.9 million ha is used for aquaculture currently. Recently, National Fisheries Development Board with huge budget provision has been established to improve production, processing, storage, distribution and marketing of fisheries products (Anon, 2006 a, 2006 b). During 10^th and 11^th plan periods higher fish production targets have been kept evisiging a growth of about 8 percent from inland sector.

Introduction

Market intelligence is a basic requirement for attaining global trade competitiveness in agriculture and allied sectors. In a free market economy, a commodity’s current price and expected future price have consequences on its future supply as the entrepreneur’s production plans are accordingly changed. Additionally market intelligence on non-price issues like changes in consumer perceptions, traceability and quality related issues of HACCP is also equally important. This can guide the farmers in deciding the quality and the quantity of a commodity to be produced for particular target market/market segment. Market analysis and quantity that is likely to be in demand and price forecasts for fish are important to producers for rational production planning and for processors/exporters for taking right marketing decisions. Domestic and international input suppliers, bankers, insurers and policy analysts need market intelligence to estimate the requirements of fishers at macro-level for their advance planning.

Introduction

Project evaluation aims at analysing research and development projects, or activities or ideas, for any or all of the following purposes:

Getting an overall understanding of the project.

 Making priorities among a set of projects.

 Taking a decision about whether or not to proceed with a project.

 Monitoring projects, eg. by following up the parameters analyzed when the project was selected.

 Terminating projects and evaluating the results obtained.

Need for Impact Assessment

Fisheries Research is an economic activity. Like any other investment propositions, resource allocation to Fisheries Research needs to be justified. The society or the donors are always interested to know what happened to the money invested in Fisheries Research. It is important to document the returns and/or benefits accrued from the research investment. Objective assessment of research investment helps in making decision and allocating resources in high returns research portfolio. It also helps to know which research areas and programs benefit the poor and regions. In the paradigm shift, the donors are seeking evidences on impact of past funding as a basis for future financial support. Systematic impact assessment forms the basis for efficient resource allocation in alternative research programs competing for financial support. Research programs demonstrate better historical performance, in terms of benefits generated for the society, and are rated higher for attracting required research resources. Impact assessment studies are also getting more prominence as the international environment is rapidly changing due to many emerging complex problems. Socioeconomic and environmental problems, like poverty, international trade, degradation of natural resources, are growing fast and the donors are looking for the research programs, which can overcome these challenges. Therefore, systematic impact assessment studies would form a strong base for higher research funding to overcome many regional, national and global problems.

Introduction

The floodplain wetlands or beels are used as multiple use and multiple users system. The large numbers of the stakeholders participate in the beels both within fisheries and across other sectors like forestry, animal husbandry, agriculture, flood control etc. (Sugunan & Sinha 2001, Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2004). The different set of stakeholders constitutes a diverse set of interests, goals and priorities for the fisheries. Therefore, under the present context, the fisheries managers face an extremely complex situation in governing fisheries of the wetlands. Such complexities lead to sub-optimal or unwise use of the wetlands. There is growing concern over the depletion of resources, poor quality of aquatic environment, poor potential realization, poor fisheries management, inequities, conflicts, over exploitation etc of the beels (CIFRI 2000, Pomeroy & William 1994, Welcomme & Bartley 1998). These issues are the outcome of the complex fisheries exploitation system and research efforts are being made to find suitable management regimes to address such issues. The evaluation of outcomes, identification of the shortcomings and understanding decision making process have been an important researchable areas (Pomeroy & William 1994, ICLARM & NSC 1998). Evaluation of a system should include depiction of its goals or objectives and an assessment of how well they are met as well as obstacles faced in meeting them. Accordingly, it is important to identify the management context of the beel fisheries management viz., the formal goals of a fishery management regime; the formal or informal goals of the various actors within it; the processes by which goals are identified and contested; processes through which they are linked to other aspects of the regime- including knowledge production and the implementation of action measures (ICES 2000). Therefore, it is imperative to understand the objectives, decision making process and criteria for evaluation of the fisheries management of the wetlands as a step towards further research in designing effective management regimes. The paper attempts to delineate the system in the simplistic way as well as review the relevant literature to map the objectives, decision making arrangements and evaluation criteria for assessing the fisheries management regimes of the beels. The present paper has been made based on the experience and understanding developed in the context of the beel fisheries management of Assam.

Introduction

Linear programming (LP) is one of the most widely applied operation research techniques and owes its popularity to George Dantzig’s simplex method (Danzig 1963). It is an important field of optimization for several reasons. Many practical problems in operation research can be expressed as linear programming problems. Linear programming is heavily used in microeconomics and business management, either to maximize the income or minimize the costs of a production scheme. Some examples are food blending, inventory management, portfolio and finance management, resource allocation for human and machine resources, planning advertisement campaign etc.

In our economy, there are limited resources at our disposal. Our problem is to make such use of these resources to yield maximum quantity of production or to minimize the cost of production. Therefore, there arises the question of Linear Programming that is defined as a mathematical method of calculating the least cost combination of the factors of production, when there are many possible alternative combinations available to an enterprise.

Introduction

A little information when shared can go a long way. Information patented can elevate India to great heights. Property (tangible) is associated with physical objects: house, land, etc., while intellectual property (intangible) includes Patents, Trade secrets, Copyrights, and Trademarks. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal rights which result from intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary, and artistic fields. Intellectual property protection (IPP) is right to protect intellectual property. Various types of IPR are:

Introduction

S tates/organizations/agencies with statuary powers constitute Legislation, which are directly or indirectly related to their basic needs, smooth functioning of targeted system and to facilitate the safe survival of present as well as future generations of human being under jurisdiction. Legislation is a Latin word and customary that include all law constituted or in the process of constitution by empowered statuary houses/persons/group of people. Such Law has been categorized as Bill, Act, Rules and Regulations etc. Policy is a multipurpose dynamic tool, which activates different levels of administrative mechanism to perform various assignments systematically according to legislation systems. It includes collection of important information and statistics along with usefulness and validity of prevailing system of law. It brings required changes based on authentic and evaluated proper information. Legislation and policy and appropriate administrative mechanism are linked to each other in circular sequence.

Constitution of legal documents and its success is totally linked with administrative mechanism presumed to implement it. Basically administrative mechanism for implementation of legislation and policy is the responsibility of state/government. To devise a good administrative mechanism to implement legislation successfully, is a complicated, dynamic and multidimensional process system which ensure the balance functioning of the different components with automatic feedback of the targeted output and effectiveness of the legislation system in place.

A fish is defined as the cold blooded vertebrates, which catch with the help of gills and swims with the help of fins and which are aquatic in nature. In broader sense the term fishery is used for the rearing and management of all aquatic animals which are useful to human being e.g. fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. The term fishery science is related to the rearing and management of fish on large scale by proper utilization of available water sources.

Fishes comprise of about 33100 species (FishBase 2015) differing widely from each other in shape, size, habits and habitats. Some of them are very small or more than an inch in length, while a few attain a length up to 18.50 m. they live in all free flowing rivers, lake, canals, dams and in almost every place where there is water.

Fishes usually have a stream lined body but some are elongated snake like and a few are dorso-ventrally compressed. They have paired and unpaired fins supported by soft or spiny fin rays. Dorsal, caudal and the anal fins are unpaired while the pectorals and pelvic (ventral) are paired fins. A number of species possess barbless which are excellent organs of touch.

What are Chordates?

The animal kingdom is divided first into several major animal groups called phyla: singular phylum. There are approximately so animal phyla. The last major groups of the animal kingdom are known as phylum chordate it was created by Belfour, in 1880. The name of this phylum is derived from two Greek words, the chorda- meaning a string or cord and ata- meaning bearing. The reference is to a common characteristic feature in the form to a stiff, supporting rod – like structure along the back, the notochord (Gr – noton – back, L-chorda-cord). This is found in all the members of the phylum at some stage of their lives. Chordates are animals having a cord are “notochord” or “Invertebrates” since they have no notochord or back bone in their body structure.

Phylum chordate is the largest to the deuterostiome phyla. It is the highest and the most important phylum comprising a vast variety of living and extinct animals including man himself most of the living chordates are the well known familiar vertebrate animals, such as the fishes, amphibians, Reptiles, birds and mammals.

Three fundamental characters of chordates:-All the chordates possesses three outstanding unique characteristics at same stage in their life history. These three fundamental morphological include,

The evolutionary classification based largely on the typological methods has been adopted a number of fish taxonomist. Foremost among them are Gunther and Cope (1871) Boutenger (1904); Jordan (1923); Regan (1929); Berg (1940) and Romer (1959). Out of the various schemes proposed by aforesaid taxonomists, there is no agreement among the ichthyologists regarding the classification of fishes. Fishes constitute more than one half of all vertebrates comprising around 40,000 species.

The classification of Berg (1940) is most widely accepted, it is based upon the conclusions of Jordan (1923) and Regan (1929). Many ichthyologists consider Bergs classification as a minor revision. Berg scrutinizing the merits of the other classification proposals and make advanced classification, which is accepted all over the world.

This group includes a large number of bony fishes in which the primary upper and lower jaws are supplemented by the addition of membrane bones which forms secondary jaws. Hence they are called as teleostomi or perfect mouthed fishes.

All major groups of fresh water fishes lived successfully and flourished during the Devonian period which is also called as the “Age of fishes”. Teleostomii are characterized by a unique mechanism of opening the mouth by lowering the mandible through hyoid apparatus, therefore the skull is hyostylic or the amphistylic. Presence of an ossified operculum, an interhyal bone and the branchiostegal rays are the diagnostic features of this group.

The animals, which are aquatic cold blooded respires with the help of gills and swim with the help of fins such animals are called as fishes. Fishes have various body forms according to the environment and in changing the life of fish the body form of fish are found. The fish swim in water with the help of fins. The fins are present on all body of the fish. In swimming the body form is also important. Following are the various body forms found in fishes.

Body Forms

Following are some of the body forms in fishes:

1. Anguilliform body from:- When in fishes the body form is the anguilliform shape and size, like that of eel or anguilla type, then such body form is called as angilliform body form.

2. Depressiform body form :- When in the fishes body form is flattened from above downwards, means the body form is depressed dorso-ventrally it is called as depressiform body forms like that of angler fish, ray fish is also called dorso-ventrally depressed.

3. Disciform body form :- When in fishes the body form is flattened form sides or the fish is laterally compressed on both sides that type is called as disciform body form of laterally compressed body form like that of flat fishes.

In fishes the outermost covering of the body is called as exoskeleton. The exoskeleton is covered by the covering called as skin. In most of the fishes the skin is covered with an exoskeleton in the form of scales, but a few fishes are naked having no scales on the body and body is covered only by thick skin as like the catfishes. While some other fishes like the polyodan and the Acipenser exhibit an intermediate condition, having scales or scale like plates only at same localized regions of the body. The scales of fishes are products of the activity of the skin. The scales of fishes have become modified in various ways mainly to provide protection.

The scales are useful for the classification and identification of fishes (in fish Taxonomy it is used) Fish scales are self for the determination of age of the fish. Scales are also useful for the estimation of the number of the spawning.

Scale provide important information about extinct fishes and useful in identifying food habits of piscivorous animals. Scales are important exoskeleton in fishes According to the mode of origin there are two types of scales i.e. 1) Placoid and 2) Non- placoid scales.

• Structure and working of electric organs in- Electric eel, electric catfish, electric ray.

• Mechanism of electric discharge formation and control of electric organs.

Fishes possess a number of adaptive structures which have been evolved to meet special requirements faced by them. The electric organs are highly specialized structures that enable their possessors to produce store of discharge to electric current. Fishes are unique in the animal kingdom in being capable of generating an electric current.

About 250 species of both, the cartilaginous and bony fishes of fresh and marine waters are known to possess the electric organs. Most of these restrict to the tropical fresh water of Africa and South America. Many species of rays, skates, and the eels are known to possess small electric organs that give a weak discharge. These fishes can produce electric field outside the body. Electric fishes have been divided into two types-strongly electric and weakly electric, depending on the strength of the current.

• Source of colour

• Colour changes in fishes

• Regulation of colour changes

• Significance of colour changes.

The coloration is most well-marked in fishes A large number of fishes are brightly and brilliantly coloured and others are of more uniform and sober shade. On fish body characteristics markings in the form of base strips, spots and blotches etc. coloration is mainly due the skin pigments but the back-ground colour may also be due to the underlying tissues and body fluids. Coloration relates to the life style of the fishes and the patterns so produced have functional significance.

Generally the fishes are darker on their upper surfaces this is because their upper surfaces being exposed to sun light undergo pigmentation, while ventral surface with gradual shading on the sides. Some fish species like the gold fish, carassius exhibit almost uniformly bright colour all over the body. Cave fishes living in total darkness have lost the pigments and grown colourless. Several species of the genera synodontis living in the river of Africa swim in inverted position and so the pigmentation is reversed in them.

The oceans covering nearly 71% of earth surface are classified into several zones. There are different zones such as neritic zone, oceanic zone. Neritic zone consists of different zones. Which are present in bank side of ocean. The oceanic zone forms two major zones as pelagic and the benthic zones. In the pelagic zone the organisms float or swim freely on the surface and in the benthic zone they associations are widely different and there is no light, water is called dark zone water or aphotic this constitute the deep sea fishes which found in the bottom of the sea the region between 200-1000 meters is called as the mesopelagic zone. The part of the ocean below 1000 meters is called bathypelagic zone and the deepest part of the deepwater is called benthic zone. Mesopelagic, bathypelagic and benthic zone constitute the deep sea water. A large number of species of fish in habits the deep sea. Fishes living in the deep water of the oceans are exposed to more or less uniform conditions of life and they are adapted differently.

Shallow weed infected ponds, swamps, marshes, pools. Bogs infected all inland water bodies. These infected inland water bodies provides shelter food and suitable environmental condition to grow and multiply to different pathogens and microorganism and macro-organism such as mosquitoes, snails other hosts.

Mosquitoes are the vectors of several diseases and carry parasites of malaria, filarial, yellow fever and so on the breed in all sorts of stagnant water and shallow weed infested ponds, swamps, pits gutters and all other kinds of inland water bodies. Different species of mosquitoes prefer different kinds of water for breeding purpose.

A number of fishes have little food value but are of immense utility to public health because of their larvivorous feeding habits. Fish is a natural enemy of mosquito eggs and larvae and its use as means of biological control has been recognized since olden times. Several species of fresh water fishes are known to be larvicidal and of use in the control of mosquito population. Biological control of this type is now regarded as one of the most potent tool in destroying the mosquito population without any causing harmful effect in the food chain and the human system. Man learnt to use them as one of his several measures to combat a number of serious diseases which are spread through the agency of insects. A number of larvicidal fishes directly feed upon mosquito larvae and thus their introduction in such water bodies where mosquitoes breed results in a very effective control on the population the mosquitoes in selection of the larvicidal fishes for such a control of diseases.

• Type of Aquatic weeds

• Different control method

• Advantage and disadvantage of Aquatic weeds.

Aquatic weeds are those unwanted and undesirable plants, which reproduce and grow in fast in water bodies. They are more harmful them beneficial for fish culture. Excessive growth of aquatic vegetation prevents effective utilisation of water and reduces productivity because they utilize the nutrients and also prevent the sunlight to read the deep part of the water body. This excessive growth restrict the living space of fishes, resulting into less production. The decay mass of these pollute weeds prevent the growth of more useful microorganisms. And disturb the food web and food chain and equilibrium of physico-chemical qualities of water. Liberation of toxic substance and waste decomposition of water body is most effective so it is necessary to identify and control them. It has the primary problem of management of Inland fishery cultures.

Aquatic plants grow on extremely wet soil and where water is available to plants in abundance such as ponds lanes river banks etc. or those plants which grows and found in the nearby water body or in water body. These plants are called as aquatic weeds because these are not attend the larger size and act as the weeds which is found in water so these are called as aquatic weeds.

In order to obtain maximum yield of fish from a lake or reservoir, it is essential to culture fast growing compatible species of different feeding habits is called as composite fish culture.

Any one kind of species cannot utilize the variety of food available in the pond. For a complete utilization of cheap natural food, pond fishes of different age groups or of different species may be selected for stocking. A combination of several compatible species with complementary food habits would make better use of the food resources of the pond as well as ecological potentials of the pond.

When fishes of different age groups and different species are cultured in same pond called as composite fish farming or mixed farming or polyculture. This is based on the principle that compatible species do not harm each other instead they utilize in the most efficient manner, all available food supply of the pond for maximum production of fish yield. There is no competition between different species on the other land they may be beneficial effect on the growth of others.

Fishes are used by human beings in different forms from time immemorial millions of human beings suffer due to hunger and malnutrition and fishes from a rich source of food, which has following importance:

1) Fish is an excellent food for mankind is more easily perishable than cattle, sheep and chicken.

2) Fish flesh is easily digestible by child and man.

3) Fish flesh has very great nutritive and medicinal values.

4) Fish flesh contains proteins, bass, vitamins, waters and minerals.

5) All the essential required amino acids are present in the fish flesh.

6) Fish flesh contains proteins about 13-20 % and it is easily digestible and nutritional.

7) Fish flesh is highly perishable commodity constituted as 60-80 % water.

8) Fish flesh contains about 1-8 % fats or oils and it is more important value of fishes.

Fish are of great economic value for man. In addition to it is an important item of food and provides several important by – products also which are as :

1) Fish oil

The most important fish by product industry is fish oil which acts as a vehicle for fat soluble vitamins i.e. A, D, E and K, and source of essential faty acids.

The oil of fish is categorized into two main types as the fish liver oil and fish body oil.

The oil abstained from the whole body of fish is called as body oil and is poor in vitamin contents.

The oil abstained from the only liver of the fish is called as the liver oil, and is good quantity of vitamins.

The body oil is less valuable as compared to the liver of the fish.

The embryogenesis or embryonic development of a sexually reproducing multicellular animal is prefaced by the gametogenesis as ovum and sperms.

In some animals both kinds of gametes are produced by a single individual which is called monoecious or hermaphrodite.

But in majority of animals both kinds of gametes are produced by different individuals to an animal species are called dioecious.

The kind of sex cells as spermatozoa and ova; and those organs which are immediately concerned with their production i.e. male gonads called as testes and female gonads as ovaries form the primary sexual characters of each sex.

Besides these primary sexual characters the male and female sexes differ from each other in many somatic characters, which are called secondary sexual characters.

Such a phenomenon of morphological differentiation or specialization in secondary sexual characters between male and female individuals of a species is called sexual dimorphism. Sexes are generally separate in fishes and only a few species are hermaphrodite.

• Fish cum-poultry farming.

• Fish cum-duck farming.

• Fish cum-pig farming.

• Fish cum-paddy farming.

A) Fish Cum-poultry farming

Inland fish culture in conjunction with poultry rearing is a compatible business and can provide a readymade fertilizer for fish pond. In a larger sense fish and poultry are mutually complementary the former provides fish meal a protein rich poultry feed and the later is droppings which acts as fertilizers for plankton production to serve as natural proteinous fish feed. Fish meal is recognized as perhaps the choicest poultry feed. In an integrated fish cum-poultry farm, birds have to be housed in deep litter of battery system in which the pen flora is covered with hay. The floor of the pen is covered with chapped straw dry leaves, hay broken up groundnut shells maize straw and saw dust. Each bird should have about 0.3 m² space to live on the deep litter flooring bird droppings falling on the litter react with the flooring organic material. The litter has to be periodically churned for aeration and maintenance of hygienic conditions.

The per capita consumption of fish has been 3.2kg on an average up to 1992 as against estimated requirement of 11.0 kg pisciculture has the potentiality of popularity. Fish is rightly considered as the “Poor man’s diet”. It is almost zero carbohydrate food, good for diabetics and other such patients. Fish is a rich source of protein, vitamins and minerals. A special feature of fish flesh food is content of vitamin B12, which is almost absent in plant food and also a good source of calcium and vitamin A. Fish also contains polyunsaturated fatty acids which are known to provide protection against cardio-vascular diseases. This has got advantages over the other meat food.

Planktophagus fishes have higher protein contents then do fish with other feeding habits.

When flesh of fish is put to an analysis the following major components are observed.

The role of remote sensing in fishery science is one of the established fact. But today remote sensing is used generally everywhere. Success of fishing depends upon capacity for fish detection. Traditional methods like sighting, listening, smelling, locating phosphorescent patches, blue or yellow patches and oily patches in water are absolute now. Application of acoustic devices such as echo sounders, sonar’s started in 1930. Satellite remote sensing technologies have been applied recently since 1980.

In India acoustic fish finder was used in 1946. However its application has remained insignificant. No acoustic survey has been carried out either in the Arabian sea or in the Bay of Bengal. In the Indian Ocean some headway was made in 1977 and there in 1982.

Satellite remote sensing is restricted to the surface of the ocean at present. The Satellite cannot use its sensors to penetrate the column of water. The two important ocean parameters in remote sensing of fish stocks are the colour and surface temperature. Colour is used to assess and map chlorophyll productivity and through fish productivity. Temperature on the other hand helps locating thermal fronts and upwelling Zones. There by assessing nutrient abundance as well as fish abundance.

In the Indian waters, air craft remote sensing has been used for locating shoots of pelagic fish like oil sardines and mackerels in the Arabian sea using colour and bioluminescence only. The signals help distinguish shoals by species and estimate the weight of the schools. Ocean colour map also help in locating tuna schools, which prefer clear oceanic waters as against the turbid.

The concept of Exclusive Economic Zone, popularly called as EEZ was born out of a conflict on fishing rights among coastal nations. Some nations found their waters being exploited by foreign countries equipped with better and more powerful fishing gear and craft more sophisticated navigational and fish detection systems than their own. In 1950 several such nations unilaterally established fishing limits in their coastal waters for exclusive fishing. In the beginning the limit was just twelve mile. Again in 1970 some more countries are added and then they unilaterally accepted the limit of 200 nautical miles.

The United Nations General Assembly convened during 1974-1982 conferences on the Third law of the sea. The United Nations convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS) was the outcum of the deliberations after it was ratified by as many as 60 countries in 1994. According to the UNCLOS each coastal country shall have an EEZ of 200 nautical mile zone around the share with exclusive right to exploitation of marine resources. The UNCLOS also imposed certain responsibilities on them. Each Country shall have a duty to properly manage its resources. The resources not being fully tapped by a country other countries shall legally have the right to exploit such waters by use of trawlers. It was also stated that beyond the EEZ, the fisheries of the high seas shall be regulated by the Regional Fisheries Organizations. Thus straddling fish and migratory fish fisheries become the subject of not the coastal states but of the regional fisheries organizations. This agreement was reached in 1992 at the Rio-de-Janerio United Nations conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) which worked under the frame work of the UNCLOS. About 90% of the marine catch is taken in the EEZ many countries including India have yet to realize their full potential from their EEZ. A few countries have not accepted EEZ restriction like South Africa. A number of countries on other hand are almost optimally exploiting their EEZ such countries are New Zealand, Iceland and Canada. The EEZ is a common shared area among member countries of European common market (BCM)

Though India is one of the major fish producing countries in the world, it has no history regarding technical and academic training in fisheries. India has to tackle simultaneously the long range problem of establishing a regular fisheries educational system as one of its fisheries policies for ensuring a reserve of large number trained persons. The short range problem of providing specialized training to the large number of in service personal, who were not basically qualified in all aspect of fisheries had been planned. Therefore, the government of India and the state Governments had put in considerable effort to solve problem of shortage of technical person as by organizing a number of fisheries training institutions in the country at different levels. A few universities are also providing training in fisheries leading to degrees in fisheries.

The following are the main fisheries training institutions which are giving special training in fisheries in India:

The Context

A series of interventions initiated in mid-1960s that led to the green revolution in cereal production transformed the country from a situation of food def iciency to self sufficiency. The green revolution was however, restricted to productivity improvements in cereals especially wheat and rice in the initial decades, primarily grown in irrigated regions. In subsequent decades, productivity increased in other crops, namely oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, fruits and vegetables. The Green Revolution generally by passed India’s vast rain fed tracts, especially arid zones, hill and mountain ecosystems and coastal regions, thus exacerbating agro-ecological and economic disparities. Although self sufficiency was attained in food grain production, potential of different crop varieties are yet to be attained. The main features of the green revolution were:

• exclusive focus on food grains

• intensive use of water, fertilizer and pesticides to maximize yields from High Yielding Varieties (HYVs)

• practically no focus on sustainability issues

• benefited the resource-rich and large farmers and

• dependent on few technological options focusing on hybrids, changes in plant architecture.

INTRODUCTION

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) also known as Agricultural Science Centres are the integral component of the National Agricultural Research System, which aims for development and promotion of location specific technology modules in agriculture and its allied enterprises, through Technology Assessment, Refinement and Demonstrations. At present there are 585 KVKs in the country grouped under eight zones and 77 in Zone VIII comprising of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Puducherry and Lakshdweep.

The major mandate of the KVKs includes Technology Assessment and Refinement through on Farm testing, popularization of technologies through Frontline Demonstrations to prove their production potentials in the farmers’ field. Conducting skill oriented training programmes to farmers and farm women, rural youths and extension personnel mostly focussing the technologies assessed/refined or demonstrated, conducting vocational training programmes for rural youth, popularization of technologies through various extension programmes so as to reach the masses, production and supply of good quality seeds, planting materials and other bio-products to the farming community.