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The chemicals, which can destroy pests or prevent their occurrence by their chemical action are known as ‘Pesticides’. Pesticides include ‘insecticides’, acaricides’, ‘nematicides’, rodenticides’, molluscicides’ etc., which are used to destroy insect pests, mites, nematodes, rodents, slugs and snails respectively. Pesticides have been used even before the time when man never knew how to read and write. Even before 200 BC, several substances were known to control pests. Sulfur, arsenic poisons, fluorine poisons, as well as some plant extracts and oils were used to control pests. However, these substances could destroy only a few specific pests only to some extent.

Advances in the invention of pesticides

The invention of many of the present day pesticides started only after 1867. ‘Paris green’, a synthetic chemical was the first pesticide used to control the ‘Colorodo beetles’ of potato. Up to 1939, only a few inorganic chemical compounds and plant poisons were used as pesticides. Only after the Second World War much advances were made in chemical research. After the invention of DDT in 1939, a revolution had started in the field of pest control. Following the introduction of DDT, several other pesticides were identified and introduced for pest control. In 1941, BHC was invented by the British and French scientists. During the same period, organophosphorus pesticides were invented by the German scientists and parathion, malathion, demeton etc. were introduced.

The theory of probability has its origin in the games of chance related to gambling such as throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from a pack of cards etc. Jerame Cardon (1501-1576), an Italian mathematician was the first man to write a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games and Chance”, which was published after his death in 1663. The systematic and scientific foundation of the mathematical theory of probability was laid in mid-seventeenth century by two French mathematicians B. Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601 1665).

Important terms and concepts

To understand probability, let us first get acquainted with some important terms and concepts associated with probability.

• Trial: An experiment is any natural or planned activity for which it is not possible to predict the particular result called a trial.

• Events: The possible outcomes of experiments of a trial are called events. For example: Tossing of a coin in an experiment and one toss of the coin is called trial. In tossing of a coin there are only two outcomes or events, i.e. head or tail.

Types of events

Events can be of following different types:

• Exhaustive events

• Equally likely events

• Mutually exclusive events

• Dependent events

• Independent events

• Null or impossible events

• Exhaustive events: It is the total number of all the possible outcomes of an experiment.

Origin, History and Definition

The term biotechnology was coined by Karl Ereky, a Hungarain engineer, in 1919. The origin of biotechnology can be traced back to prehistoric time when armers and gardeners have been making use of hybridization and grafting among plants with a view to bring about an improvement in existing attributes. Using these approaches, several hundred varieties in ornamental plants were produced. Microorganisms were already used for processes like fermentation, formation of yoghurt and cheese from milk, vinegar from molasses, production of butanol and acetone from starch by Clostridium acetobutylicum or the production of antibiotics like penicillin from Penicillium notatum. Four defferent phases of biotechnological research were witnessed during the last century. In 1920, Chain Weizmann used Clostridium acetobutylicum to convert starch into butanol and acetone (during world war I, acetone was used as an essential component of explosives). Alexander Fleming in 1929 discovered penicillin from Penicillium notatum and wounded soldiers were given treatment using this antibiotic during world was II. In 1970s with the discovery of restriction enzymes, which led to the development of recombinant DNA, technology brought a revolution in the field of biology. The latest phase in the history of biotechnology is the study of structure and function of whole genome (DNA) and whole proteome (protein). This area of research is described as genomics and proteomics, respectively. Some more important activities in the field of biotechnology are given in Table1

In fact, biotechnology is the product of interaction between science of biology and technology. It is the technological exploitation and control of biological system. Biotechnology has wide range of its uses and accordingly Office of Technology Assessment described biotechnology as: (i) old biotechnology that includes fermentation, i.e. formation of vinegar from molasses and that of cheese and yoghurt from milk, production of antibiotics from certain fungi and process of baking and brewing and (ii) new biotechnology that includes the techniques of recombinant DNA and PCR polymerase chain reaction, cell culture and fusion and bioprocessing which became possible only through the researches in molecular biology. However, no efforts have been made to distinguish between old and new biotechnology. Keeping in view the importance of biotechnology, attempts have been made to define it. Following are some of the definitions of biotechnology, however, none of the definitions of biotechnology seems to be complete. The first definition seems to be comprehensive and wide.

Objectives of book keeping

How much have we earned this year?

How much during the past year?

Is our business improving?

Also, how much cash do we have?

How much our customers owe us?

The method of preserving various food stuffs by drying them, and thereby depriving microorganisms of the water necessary for their growth, has been known for centuries. According to Marco Polo’s accounts of his travel in Asia in 13^th century, soldiers of Kublai Khan carried dried milk on excursions. Before it was used, water was added to a portion of dried material. Mixing was accomplished by movement of the horse during riding on the trip. The recombined product was then consumed at the mealtime. The belief is that part of the fat was removed from the milk before drying and dehydration was accomplished by solar heating.

Drying is defined as the removal of the liquid, usually water, from a product by evaporation, leaving the solids in an essentially dry state. Today the production of dried milk and milk products has become important segment of dairy industry. Dry milk provides a means of preserving the excess milk supply during the flush season for use during the lean season. The value added dried dairy products like malted milk foods, infant food and infant formulae and dairy whiteners are convenient ready to use products having wide acceptance. The water content of milk powder ranges between 2.5 and 5%, and no microbial growth occurs at such low water content. Drying extends the shelf life of milk, simultaneously reducing its weight and volume. The main purpose of drying milk are: a) to improve the storage life of the product due to low moisture content, b) to reduce cost for storage and transportation of product due to reduced bulk, and c) to provide convenient product for utilization in many dairy and food preparations.

The production of dried milks to a great extent is now being governed by the market requirement and to some specialized use of such products. Considerable quantities of dried skim milk powders are being used extensively in the preparation of ‘Reconstituted and Recombined milks”. Milk powders are also used extensively in the manufacture of ice cream, bakery products, confectionary products, cottage cheese and in other cheese varieties. The greatest proportion of milk powder is utilized in confectioneries, such as milk chocolate, caramels, soft sweets, coatings, biscuits and cakes. In these products, milk powder has a special effect on the quality of particular products: it improves consistency, flavour as well as nutritional value and shelf life.

2.1 Tracing History of Casting
The manufacture of end products, viz. two-wheeler, four-wheeler, fan, washing machine, fridge, grinding machine, water cooler, etc., in companies requires many components. The components of these products have different shapes and sizes. Casting is a manufacturing process, which gives shape and size to a component of interest by pouring molten metal, which is in red hot state into a mould, which is designed such that its internal shape and size exactly match with the external shape and size of the component of interest. Casting is a very old art form that dates back thousands of years before the start of written history. Findings from the archaeological record show that the casting process was used more than 6000 years ago, or around 3000 BC. It is assumed that the moulds consisted of two pieces of pottery joined by a rope and featuring a hole to allow the molten metal to be poured into them. It is assumed that early hunting tools and weapons were made in this manner The Greeks and Romans made the casting process in artform to make bronze status, in which hollow wax has been used. Every component of a product was casted individually. The core of the mould was composed of clay and coated in wax. Next, a layer of clay was heated to melt the wax inside, and then the clay was heated once again to burn off any leftover wax. Melted metal was poured into the region where the wax had been removed once the mould was stable and ready, which is a process like contemporary investment casting. China started producing tools, bowls and many industrial items using casting around 1000 BCE. In specific, they produced farm tools and weapons. After several centuries, the casting process reached European counties to make gun, bullets, etc. With the advent of industrial revolution, the casting process became as a usual manufacturing process, what is seen today. Later, several metals, which are used in casting have been invented to produce high quality products with increased end of life for them. Over a period, metal casting underwent development. Casting procedures advanced quickly along with improvements in metal-heating and melting techniques. Gold was the first metal to be casted because of its low melting point and malleability. China made significant contributions to the development of casting when it discovered sand casting and iron, also referred to as pig iron.

Abstract: Rose is a popular cut flower and flowering garden plant. Fragrance, wide colour range, plant forms and wide adaptability make it a versatile floriculture crop. The diagnostic traits of the different classes are described with reference to their potential commercial value. Increasing genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop and molecular genetic techniques are valuable tools aiding modern rose breeders, cultivars are almost exclusively asexually propagated. A gametophytic self incompatibility is found within this species. Numerous cultivars developed through hybridization and mutation techniques are discussed. Rose breeding efforts have been focused on miniature forms, floral fragrance, recurrent blooming, diverse colours, thornlessness, potential rootstocks, mutilple disease, pest resistance and winter hardiness. Transgenic research is highlighted. The journey of rose is endless and rose breeding may continue forever.

Keywords: Rose, intervarietal hybridization, mutation, inheritance, self incompatibility, rootstock, seed production, genetic transformation.

8.1. Introduction

Providing appropriate nutrition is an elementary step in dairy animal production. Improper nutrition prevents cattle to express full genetic potential for milk production and reproductive efficiency. Nutrition helps in maintaining good health condition of the animal.

Therefore, one should know the basic digestive physiology, various types of nutrients and their requirements in different categories of animals present in a dairy herd. As feed cost contributes principal expenditure of a dairy farm, balanced ration should be prepared in a cost effective manner. Proper understanding of feeds and rations also help to explore alternative feeds and supplements without hampering the health as well as productivity of the animals. Effective dairy farming requires converting feed into milk which worth more than the total cost of production (mostly contributed by feed cost).

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain molds and can be found in food. The molds grow on a variety of different crops and foodstuffs including cereals, nuts, spices, dried fruits, apples and coffee beans, often under warm and humid conditions. Mycotoxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to both humans and livestock. The adverse health effects of mycotoxins range from acute poisoning to long-term effects such as immune deficiency and cancer. A scientific expert committee jointly convened by WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), called JECFA, is the international body responsible for evaluating the health risk from natural toxins including mycotoxins. International standards and codes of practice to limit exposure to mycotoxins from certain foods are established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission based on JECFA assessments.

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of molds (fungi). Molds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices. Mold growth can occur either before harvest or after harvest, during storage, on/in the food itself often under warm, damp and humid conditions. Most mycotoxins are chemically stable and survive food processing. Several hundred different mycotoxins have been identified, but the most commonly observed mycotoxins that present a concern to human health and livestock include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, zearalenone and nivalenol/deoxynivalenol. Mycotoxins appear in the food chain as a result of mold infection of crops both before and after harvest. Exposure to mycotoxins can happen either directly by eating infected food or indirectly from animals that are fed contaminated feed, in particular from milk.

8.1 General Description

Based upon ethnic values and culture, both private and common property land tenure regime is found in existence in the shifting cultivation system. In Odisha state of India, shifting cultivation locally called as podu, there exists both private and common property regime (Dash 2006). In case of Meghalaya state, while the private land ownership pattern does exist among the Khasi and Karbi tribes, the Garo tribes, on the other hand, resort to community land ownership pattern (Deb et al., 2013). Furthermore, an ethno-agrarian economy based on shifting cultivations is self-sufficient, and such shifting cultivators typically rely on outside sources for alleviation of their economic demands very infrequently, if at all (Gupta 1994). The use of human labour is the key input in the shifting cultivation system and the practice of mutual exchange of labour amongst these shifting cultivator communities is also not uncommon. In practices like harvesting, the groups of families join hands together to harvest the crop of each plot one by one. This practice of community labouring reduces drudgery and increases work productivity. During this harvesting time, it is said that farmers exchange their innovations and look at each other’s innovations as they work. Further, it is customary to arrange food and drinks by the family of the plot which is being harvested. The community recognizes these harvest periods as festive events which makes their work enjoyable. The case of village named Nawalparasi, Nepal, shows that shifting cultivators work in an innovative way in their community in which the part of the village land is set aside and is cultivated by the members of whole community jointly. The benefit they harvest from this area is used to fund for teachers’ salaries in community school (kerkhoff and Sharma 2006). Further, the close knit and kinship ties are not only necessary for labour sharing but also important for technology diffusion among the members (NAEB 2008). The division of labour exists between men and women. It varies from place to place. The Manipur shifting cultivation characteristics portray that the women predominate in seed selection and planting, weeding and other operations, the activities like cutting of the trees in jungle, clearing, burning are generally done by men Both men and women participate in harvesting of produce and so harvested produces are carried to the villages by head loading.

Pig farming is considered as a beneficial sector in India that provides avenues of fast economic growth for new entrepreneurs and socioeconomically weaker sections, due to high fecundity rate, better-feed conversion efficiency, early maturity, small generation interval, and minimum investment on housing and equipment. Pig farming has evolved into a semi-commercial enterprise using intensive farming practises, in addition to being reared through free range management. Pig farming provides money to rural impoverished people from the lowest socioeconomic strata. As a result, effective programmes to popularise technological pig rearing of meat producing animals with enough financial supplies are required to modernise the Indian pig business and advance the productivity of small sized rural pig farms. 

The earth's crust is made up of minerals and rocks. Minerals are inorganic substances with a definite chemical composition, whereas rocks are mixture or aggregates of minerals. Each mineral is composed of certain elements present in fixed proportion. For example, mineral quartz, SiO₂ is a compound of the elements silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) combined in the proportion of 1:2, so its chemical formula is SiO₂, whereas rock granite is a mixture of several minerals like quartz, feldspar etc. Nature has provided unique physical properties to different minerals that can be used to identify them.

4.1 Physical Properties of Minerals

Majority of minerals contain following properties that can be used to identify them in field and in laboratory: crystal habit, cleavage, hardness, density, luster, streak, color, tenacity, magnetism, and taste.

4.1.1 Crystal habit

The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space available for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted environment, it is possible that no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However, crystals sometimes develop certain forms more commonly than others, although the symmetry may not be readily apparent from these common forms. The term used to describe general shape of a crystal is habit.

Some common crystal habits are as follows:

Chapter Overview

This chapter provides a comprehensive understanding of the intersection of gender and animal husbandry, emphasizing the influence of culture, society, and history on our perceptions of gender and sex. It explores the interconnectedness of these concepts and their significance in shaping roles and expectations of the members of a society in livestock production. This chapter delves into the complex concepts of gender and sex, shedding light on their intricate nature and exploring their implications for animal husbandry.

Identification of Diseased Animals

Detection of compromised pigs necessitates awareness and fast decisions about treatment, transportation, and/or culling.

Walking the pens daily to observe the pigs will aid in the early identification of healthy and unwell pigs. Before unsettling a group of pigs, try to assess them from afar. This allows you to assess their behaviour.

Check the pens for down or lame animals, watch for increased activity around the water or feeders, and listen for coughing or sneezing. Inspect the ventilation system for improper or poorly managed air quality.

Then, enter the pen area quietly and study the pigs individually utilising B.E.S.T. Method. This acronym stands for:

• Body
• Eyes/Ears/Nose
• Skin/Hair-coat
• Temperament.

Body Parts of Farm Animals

It is important to know about the various terms used to indicate different body parts of the animals so that whenever a description of the animal/body part is presented, one could specifically understand it. Some of the terms used to point out different body points of common livestock species have been shown in Figure 2.1.1-2.1.5. Terms which are more frequently used for different livestock species have been depicted in Table 2.1.1.

Vermicomposting is the rapid aerobic non-thermophilic composting technique for decomposition of various biodegradable wastes using epigeic earthworms in comparison to other conventional pit or heap composting techniques. Earthworms fragment the half decomposed organic material, mix and promote microbial activity. Worm utilizes 5-10% of food for its body growth and excretes remaining portion as vermicompost. The action of earthworm is both mechanical and biochemical. Mechanical fragmentation of the half decomposed organic material to finer particles by earthworm in its gizzard helps to increase surface area of action by microbes and aeration inside bed. Biochemical action improves the enzymatic digestion, nutrient enrichment and change in organic and inorganic contents.