eChapters

Pigs are inherently prolific, and two farrowings per year under optimal management conditions should be planned. One boar must be kept for every ten sows for optimal fertility. Breed the animals at their most active heat cycle (12 to 24 hours of heat). After every 21 days, the sows come into heat. Proper feeding and handling promotes heat, which facilitates breeding and results in larger litter numbers. In addition to grains, there is fish meal, skim milk or butter milk feed can be administered 2-3 weeks before breeding to allow for a 200-300 gm/day increase in body weight. The normal gestation period for a sow is 112-115 days, and the usual litter size is 8-10 piglets. Larger litters with higher birth weights are produced by older sows.

8.1. Limitations

The most important limitations which have been observed in this research are as follows:

1. Bench marking on the status of reigning uncertainty and chaos on farming’has really been a difficult task.
2. There are problems of overlapping of some variables that could have been avoided.
3. Some new scales could have been better if created.
4. Since the concept is complex, it was very difficult to get qualitative response.
5. Farmers nowadays are reluctant to engage in conversation and produce data.
6. Due to non-random sampling , there is possibility of error or biases.

Vegetables which are consumed raw without cooking are known as salad crops. In temperate regions, a large number of quick growing cool season crops like lettuce, celery, parsley, endive, chicory, chervil, cress, water cress etc. are consumed as raw. Only lettuce and celery are cultivated on a commercial scale in developed countries. Growing awareness on nutritional values of raw vegetables and also health consciousness of people resulted in increased consumption of salad vegetables in tropics too. Vegetables like onion, cucumber, tomato, carrot, radish, beet root, cabbage, capsicum, melon etc. are used as salads without cooking. 

(Hindi: Salad) Fam.: Asteraceae (Compositae)

Lettuce is the most popular salad crop of the world and the most important vegetable crop in temperate regions. The crop is grown mainly under protected structures in temperate countries. Tender leaves and heads are chopped and used as salad along with salt and vinegar.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originate from North America, in particular Central Mexico.

9.2. Economic importance

• Paprika contains capsanthin and capsorubin.

• Used to season and color rice, stews, and soups, such as goulash, and in the preparation of sausages, mixed with meats and other spices.

• There are six paprika American, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Moroccan, Spanish and Yugoslavian.

• In US, sprinkled raw on foods as a garnish.

9.3. Types and varieties

• Types of bell pepper

? Green pepper: Can be a little bitter, but it is very useful, such a fruit reduces the level of cholesterol in the blood. And it has the least calories.

? Red pepper: Is the sweetest and contains the most vitamin C.

? Orange pepper: It is also very tasty, but it contains slightly less vitamin C than red.

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to West Indies (Jamaica), Central and South America. Jamaica is the main producer of allspice.

• In India, there are few trees in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

• Available in the Mahendragiri hills of Kanniyakumari, and Kallar and Burliar of the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu; Ambalavayal in Kerala.

12.2. Economic importance

• It combines the odour and flavour of nutmeg, clove, cinnamon and pepper and hence, called all spice.

• Berry, berry oil, oleoresin, leaf oil are the products of economic use.

• Used in food industry (65 to 70%), domestic use (5 to 10%), production of berry oil (20 to 25%), extraction of oleoresin (1 to 2%), and pharmaceutical and perfume industry.

• Has, anti-microbial, insecticidal, nematicidal, anti-oxidant and deodorant properties.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• The plant originated in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, India, and at present it is cultivated in Burma, Ceylon, China, Australia and the Pacific Islands.

6.2. Economic importance

• Curry leaves are a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin B2, calcium, and iron, apart from a heavy distinctive odor and pungent taste.

• It helps in the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, diabetes, morning sickness, and nausea by adding curry leaves to your meals.

6.3. Varieties

• Sen Kaampa, Dharwad-1 and Dharwad-2

6.4. Soil and climate

• Red sandy loam soils with good drainage are ideal for better leaf yield.

• Optimum temperature is 26° to 37°C.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of tropical Asia and Africa.

• Tropical India, from North-west Himalayas to Assam and Deccan plateau.

• In Karnataka, it is grown along Western Ghats.

• Important species in India - Gloriosa superba and G. rothschildiana.

• Tamil Nadu leads in production of glory lily in India

• State flower of Tamil Nadu

5.2. Economic importance

• Economic part: Seed

• Rhizomes are used as a tonic, antiperiodic, antihelminthic and also against snake bites and scorpion stings.

• Used for promoting labour pains and an abortifacient.

8.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to Eastern and Southern Africa, the Canary Islands and Spain.

• Spread to Mediterranean basin, West Indies, India, China.

• Also cultivated in India. It is the miracle plant.

8.2. Economic importance

• Source of drug aloe; aloe gel is a mixture of glucoside aloin, main constituent of atom is barbation.

• Commercially important species - A. barbadensis, A. ferox, A. africana and A. spicata

• Yellow bitter juice from leaves consists of aloin and gel.

• Other products - dehydrated aloe powder, concentrates.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in Tropical America

• Distributed in all tropical and sub-tropical regions

9.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and hypophyllanthin

• Antioxidant with free radical scavenging properties due to presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase.

• Effective in treatment of peptic ulcer, dyspepsia, diabetes etc.

• Treatment of Hepatitis B and j aundice

10.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India and tropical South East Asia.

• Distributed throughout plains of India from Uttar Pradesh to Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

10.2. Economic importance

• King of bitters.

• Economic part - Dried leaves and tender shoots (Whole plant)

• Leaves contain three bitter principles: Deoxy andrographolide, Andrographolide and Neo andrographolide.

• Roots contain flavonoids like andrographin, panicothin, aplegenin etc.

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Persia and neighbouring tracts of Western and Southern Asia

• In India, North Guj arat, Raj asthan, Haryana and Bihar are the maj or states.

• Husk and peel - exported to USA, Germany, UK and France

12.2. Economic importance

• Psyllium from Greek meaning flea, in reference to colour, size and shape.

• Economic part - Seed coat, husk used in indigenous medicine. Seeds contain glucoside and tannin.

• Works as an anti-diarrhoea drug.

• Seed - Pentose, a sugar is isolated.

14.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Africa and distributed throughout warmer regions of world

• Naturally grown in hilly areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

14.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root

• Roots of safed musli contains 2-15% saponin having medicinal property of enhancing vitality and immunity to human beings.

• Also helps in correcting gynecological disorders.

• Dried tubers - Used as curative for pre-natal and post-natal illness, arthritis, restorative and a health tonic

• Known as divya aushadhi and ayurvedic anori.

16.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Asia

• Widely distributed in tropical regions of Asia and Pan tropics

• Most part of India up to 1000m elevation includes Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

16.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Seed, roots.

• Black seed variety contains L - DOPA CL - 34 dihydroxy phenylalanine non-protein amino acid.

• Used as tonic, aphrodisiac and treatment of Parkinson’s disease

• Used in rheumatic ailments.

17.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of India, China, Indonesia, Madagascar and Africa.

17.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant mainly leaves and roots.

• Cures leprosy, skin diseases, diarrhoea, anti-tumor and anti-ulcer activity.

• Fresh herb - Aromatic odour when crushed.

• Nauseous bitter taste

• Kitchen herb - Chutneys, pickles, refreshing drinks

• Possess insecticidal properties

• Used as a nerve tonic for improving memory and in insanity.

18.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of wetlands of Southern and Eastern India, Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and North and South America

• Cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical India.

18.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Chemical constituents: Bacosides

• Used as a nerve tonic and for epilepsy and insanity.

• Used as diuretic and for treating rheumatisim, asthma and hoarseness.

19.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Eurasia and introduced in America, Australia and South Africa.

• Grown throughout dry parts of India

19.2. Economic importance

• Whole plant - Useful for rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting

• Used in cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, emollient

• As an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.

19.3. Climate

• Well in tropical and subtropical climate

23.1. Origin and distribution

• Native from South Eastern Asia (Indonesia) to Australia

• Indian mulberry

23.2. Economic importance

• Widely used for health restorative properties, over years popularity diminished due to unpleasant smell from ripened fruit.

• Helps in reducing high blood pressure and cures heart disease and stroke due to presence of scopoletin which dilate blood vessels resulting in lower blood pressure.

• Stimulates body’s production of nitric oxide, a chemical which allows the blood vessel to dilate more easily and more elastic.

• Anti-inflammatory and histamine inhibiting effects, excellent for promotion of smooth joint movement.

24.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in hills of South Western India, Indo-Malaya region.

24.2. Economic importance

• Used to improve appetite and digestion and treat stomachache, heart burn, indigestion, intestinal gas, diarrhoea and cholera.

• Fruits are stomachic and carminative.

• Used for lung problems including Asthma, bronchitis and cough.

24.3. Varieties

• Vellanikara -1 (Visvum tippili) and Yercaud (Pl) - 9.

24.4. Climate

• Elevation between 100 and 1000 m.

• Shade intensity: 20-25%.

• Lower elevations with high humidity

25.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Western and South Western Europe, Western and Central Asia and Erstwhile USSR countries.

25.2. Economic importance

• Dried leaves constitute the drug, digitoxin and gitoxin.

• Used to treat congestive heart failure and heart rhythm problems.

• Increase blood flow throughout the body and reduce swelling in hands and ankles.

25.3. Varieties

• Strain E.C. 115996 - Higher foliage yield with high glycoside content

25.4. Climate

• Requires a cool and mild climate (20-30°C)

• Well in hill slopes at elevation of above 1250 m above msl

25.5. Soil

• Well drained sandy soil rich in organic matter and slightly acidic (pH 5.5-6.5)

26.1. Origin

• Native to Dalmatia (Yugoslavia), Herzegovina and Montenegro.

26.1. Economic importance

• Natural insecticide from dried flower heads.

• Seed or achene contains Pyrethrin I, II, Cinerin I, II, Jasmolin I, II collectively called Pyrethrins.

26.2. Varieties and types

• KKL-1 released from TNAU.

• Hansa and Jhelum released from CIMAP, Lucknow.

• Sel-2 - developed at the Kodaikanal Centre of CIMAP.

• Two types

? Dalmatian pyrethrum: C. cinerariaefolium, grown on the Easte Coast of the Adriatic Sea.

? Japanese pyrethrum also derived from C. cinerariaefolium.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Grows wild in temperate Himalayas.

• Common in Kashmir Valley, Shimla and Nainital Hills.

• Commercially cultivated in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

6.2. Economic importance

• Sweet worm wood or annual worm wood

• Chemical constituents - Artimisinin

• Commonly used in garlands, bouquets and religious offerings in most part of the country.

• Leaves and flowers contain essential oil valued for its exquisite and delicate aroma and is used in high grade perfumes and cosmetics.

9.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Southern Mediterranean.

• Distributed in India, Asia, Australia, Canada, Europe, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Morocco, Spain, USA

9.2. Economic importance

• Commonly called as common thyme or garden thyme.

• The active principle alkaloid is thymol.

• Constituents - triterpinoid saponins, flavones, ursolic acid (1.5% in tops), coffeic acid, tannins and resins.

• Oil of thyme - colourless, yellow or red liquid with a characteristic pleasant odour, and a pungent taste.

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Australia and Malaysia.

• Introduced by British people in Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu for fuel and timber.

• Commercially grown in Seychelles, Java, South Africa, Guatemala, Congo and Brazil.

• Eucalyptus tereticornis - Commercial species

• Major growing states - UP, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

12.2. Economic importance

• Known as spotted gum tree.

• Source of citronellol, hydroxycitronellal and menthol.

• Contains 0.5-4% essential oil; rich in citronella.

• Essential oil - Therapeutic and ayurvedic benefits.

• Used in soaps, mouth wash liquids, massage oils, air fresheners and bug repellents

Many types of containers are used for growing plants in nurseries. These are clay pots, plastic pots, fiber pots, wooden pots, etc. Generally, the type of container to be used for growing a plant depends upon the kind of plant, objective of growing, choice of grower, etc. With advancement of technology, the container-grown plants are widely adopted, practiced by the nurserymen. The advantages of container grown plants are they are not prone to damage during packaging and transport. These are widely used for many fruit and ornamental plants. The different types of container and their characteristic features are as follows.

• Clay pots: Well-baked earthenware pots are used for raising plants. These are available in different shapes and sizes. On the basis of shape and size; these are named by pela, parali, kundi, nand, khobada, etc. Porous nature of the clay pots permits aeration, and water movement. Pot made with clay soil and well-baked will last longer than those made with sand or loamy soils. Before using, these are dipped in water for some period to soak the water in the pot itself sufficiently. However, earthen pots are heavy in weight, possibilities of breakage during potting and repotting and hence are less durable.

Introduction, importance and scope of Canopy management

• The tatura trellis uses more water than other systems.
• Light interception ranges from 57 to 81% of available light.
• HDP increases light interception of 20% and 60%.
• Meadow orchard system affords more light than other conventional systems.
• The orientation of North to South intercept should be about - 89% of direct and 87% of diffused light.
• Summer priming in combination with dormant priming reduces light interceptor by 15%.
• In the bottom of 4m tall trees, the light is reduced to 10% of full sunlight.
• Light transmittance is a logarithmic function of the leaf area index.
• Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) is from 380-720 nm.
• Photosynthesis to be about 60% of the maximum at 25% of full sunlight.

• 52% use of the fruit of total weight.
• Comprising 78% juice and 22% seeds
• CIAH – Central Institutes for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner.
• Cultivars – Alandi or Vadki, Bassein Seedless, Dholka Ganesh, Jalore Seedless, Jyothi, Kabul, Kandhari, Paper Shell, Muskat Red, G-132, G-107, G-137, P-13, P-16, P-23, P-26.
• Hybrid – Mridul – Ganesh × Gul-E-Shah Red (fruit spot infection)
• Ruby – M
• Type of inflorescence is Hypanthodium.
• Pomegranate is a subtropical fruit crop.
• It is commercially propagated by hardwood cutting.
• Fruit cracking happens due to baron deficiency and water imbalance.
• HDP - (5 m × 2 m)- 1000/ha

  (5 m × 5 m)- 400/ha

• The date is a good source of crystalline sugar.
• It is a dioecious and monocotyledonous fruit crop.
• Dates can be grown in sandy loamy soils.
• Date palm needs 3300 units of heat. (A unit of heat means a degree above a daily mean of 18°C between flowering, fruit development and ripening period.

Cultivars

• Halawi of makes tolerant of rain. It is 28.5 to 42.2 per cent Dakastage Dang Zoo, Hayni Khadrawy, Shamran (Sayen) are tolerant to high humidity. Medjoal, Bastree, Zahidi – is rain and high humidity tolerant.

• Recommended no. of beehives for efficient pollination is 5-8 beehives.
• Maturity indices: Change the colour from green to yellowish with cracks.
• Dehulling term is related to Almond.
• Damage to blossom due to early spring frosts is the major constraint in almond cultivation.
• Almond can withstand low temperatures upto -2.2 to -3°C.
• The almond tree becomes productive after 5 years.
• Almond contains oil - 49%, Oleic acid – 62%, Linoleic acid – 24% and Palmitic acid – 6%.
• Almond is a rich source of Vitamin E
• Kernels after blanching, roasting, frying and salting taste very delicious and are in in great demand.
• Green almond kernels are also consumed in the milky stage.
• Almond is cultivated mainly in regions situated between 360 and 450 N latitude.

• Male and Female flowers borne in a mixed flower bud.
• Most important nut fruit of world ranking: 5th in production worldwide.
• Chilling requirement – 400hrs at or below 7.2°C
• Contains 70% Fat and a good amount of phosphoric acid.
• HDP varieties: Desirable, Cheyenne
• Pecan is a valuable horticultural gift of North America to the world.
• Fat – 72%, Carbohydrates – 15%, Protein – 9%.
• Almost 90% of the nuts are sold shelled and rest in the shell.
• It is most commonly used in baking dishes and ice creams.
• Pecan shell, a byproduct, is also used to manufacture tannin, charcoal and abrasives in hand soap.
• pH ranges – 5-8
• Requires three coldest months between 7.2°C and 12.8°C with at least 400h of chilling.

• The chestnut is a nutritious low in fat and rich in Vitamin B.
• Freshly harvested nuts contain about 50% moisture, 40-42% carbohydrates, 2.9% proteins and about 1.5% fats.
• All cultivars of chestnut are self-sterile.
• The Chinese chestnut is the earliest tree to bloom. The flowers are produced in two kinds of catkins borne on current season shoot near the terminal portion of the shoot.
• Three nuts are usually produced in each bun (upper, left and right).
• Botanically, each nut is a complete fruit.
• The shell of the nut develops from the ovary wall.
• It is as hardy as peach and can withstand as low as -29°C temperature in deep dormancy.
• Some species of chestnut are used as rootstock for propagation.
• Chestnut is a highly cross-pollinated and hybrid seedling used as the rootstock is a possible cause of graft union failure in chestnut. Therefore, mixed hybrid strains should not be used as rootstock.

• Turkish hazelnut production of 625,000 tons accounts for approximately 75% of world productions.
• The common hazel (Corylus avellana) is native to Europe and Western Asia.
• In H P, it is found growing wild in Pangi region of Chamba district and locally known as Thangi.
• Hazelnut is also known as cobnut and filbert.
• Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionery to make praline and also used in combination with chocolate truffles.
• The temperature of minus 10°C is critical, especially if accompanied by wind, which may kill both pistillate and staminate flavours.
• Hazelnuts are more shallow-rooted, most fruit and nut trees do not tolerate wet soils, the tree cannot tolerate excessive dry summer heat and hot winds.
• Hazel will grow in pH ranging from 4.5-8.5 but around pH 7 is ideal.

• It can withstand a very wide range of temperature from 30 to 42°C.
• Pistachio was grown for the first time in the early eighties using seeds of pista at the PCDO Bhoktu and Regional Horticultural Research Station, Sharbo in Kinnaur district of HP.
• The two commercial varieties namely Kerman (Pistillate) and Peters (Staminate) were introduced India from California in 2001.
• They are drought resistant and very tolerant of high summer temperature, but con not tolerant excess of dampness and humidity.
• P. atlantica, P. terebinthus P. integerrima are seedling rootstocks.
• Rafsanjani is the world-famous pistachio growing region in Iran.
• Iranian varieties: Momtaz, Owhadi, Agah, Safeed.
• Turkish varieties: Uzun, Kimizi.
• California varieties: Kerman, Peter Ibrahim, Owhadi, Safeed, Sharti, Wahedi, Bronte, Sfax.
• Other varieties: Buenzle, Minassian, Red Aleppo, Trabonella.
• A sister seedling of Kerman, namely Lasson also produces good quality large-sized nuts.

• Jackfruit is eaten unripe at 25-50% full size as a vegetable or ripe as a fruit.
• The seeds are boiled or roasted and used in many culinary preparations. The seeds are very rich in carbohydrate and protein.
• Highest production in Assam.
• Jackfruit is a monoecious plant.
• The male inflorescence is long and light green and grows to a length of 5 to cm by 2.4cm.
• Pollen production is abundant and ranges from 1,50,00,000 to 1,70,00,000 per catkin. The percentage of pollen fertility ranges from 89 to 93 and the pollen diameter ranges from 16 to 22.
• Being cross-pollinated and mostly seed propagated, the jack fruit has innumerable types or forms considering the fruit characteristics.
• Gulabi, Champa, Hazari, Rudrakhs, Black Gold, Golden Nugget, J-31, Honey Gold and Lemon Gold.

• In India, ber is cultivated on an estimated area of 61.284/ha.
• Fruit tree is suited for arid and semi-arid regions while crops in a tropical and subtropical climate.
• 125 cultivars grown in India: Nazuk, Kaithli, Umran, Chhuhana Ilaichi, Jogia, Banarasi Karaka, Najma, Sadhura Nannaul, Seo, Thornless, ZG3, Gola.
• The fruit starts ripening as early as the middle of December in the western part of India and North plain in mid-February.
• Propagation of Ring / T-budding.
• Ziziphus nummularia – Dwarfing due to formation Rootstock of an inverted bottleneck at the graft union.
• Ziziphus rotundifolia – Deep-rooted suited for arid zones.
• The seed germination of 3-4 weeks.
• In Punjab, the best time of planting ber is during February - March and in monsoon during July or September.
• Ber planting distance of 8 m × 8m.
• Best pruning time is during May.

• S. fruticosum (Jamiya), a small edible fruit, is grown as a wide break.
• Ross apple (Gulab Jamun) bears rose-scented fruits with fibrous flesh.
• Cultivar – Raij Jamun, Paras (Large size) N.J.-6 (Seedless).
• Syzygium Jambos – Rose apple (Gulab Jamun)
• Fruit trees for sodicity tolerance.
• Syzygium grows in tropical and subtropical climate under a wide range of them temperature and rainfall.
• Jamun, in general, prefers dry atmosphere at the time of flowering and fruiting.
• Water apple and rose apple are usually planted in home garden at a distance of 7.0 m × 8.0 m.
• Propagation of seed and shield and patch budding.
• Irrigation the use in May-June requires 5-6 irrigations in a year.
• Intercropping – peach, guava, kagzilime, as fillers, field crop – gram, peas, moong etc.
• Jamun exhibits maximum growth and flowering during February.
• Flower bud differentiation has been observed on 5-10 months old branches, starts in the last week of January and continues for 43 days.

• No other fruit has such a high content of Riboflavin.
• The Bael is a native of the Indo-Malayan region and has been known in India since prehistoric times.
• Narandra Bael 5– Size – 1.25 kg/fruit, very thin rind 2-5 mm, TSS-38%, Slight acidity-25 mg/100g, eight years old plant- 56 kg.
• Narendra Bael 9 - TSS-40%, Ascorbic acid – 28mg/100g.
• Pant Bael 12 – Varanasi, Gorakhpur, Mirzapur, Etawa, Kagzi Sewan Large, Deoria Large, NB1, NB5 and NB9.
• Bael is very hardy subtropical, deciduous tree and can thrive well even in swampy alkaline soils having pH range 5 to 10.
• Major bael growing states: U.P., Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa.
• Seeds, which are sown in June, usually propagate bael; Seedlings are transplanted a year later.
• Patch budding is the month of June or July gives the best results.
• Bael can be classified as a climacteric fruit.
• Bacterial shot-hale canker of Bael is caused by (Xanthomonas blue).

• The wine prepared from ripe fruits contains about 14.5 to 15% alcohol.
• Flowers are white, produced in a terminal cyme.
• It is grown in countries viz., South Africa, Australia, India, Malaysia, S. Lanka and Barma.
• In India, it is grown in M.H., Rajasthan, U.P., Bihar, and South India.
• It is used as protective hedge in Gujarat and Punjab.
• It is not suited to the hills of Himalayas.
• Pant Sudarshan – White Pink
• Pant Suverna – Green, Purple
• Other varieties: PK.1, Pant Maohan
• Deep loamy or alluvial soils.
• It can tolerate saline-sodic soils with pH up to 8.5.
• Seeds usually lose their viability within 4-5 week.

• The most important use of mulberry leaf is rearing of silk worm for production of silk.
• The mulberry tree is used for landscaping in Asia, Europe & Southern U.S A.
• Morus alba (White mulberry)
• Morus rubra (Red mulberry) is native to America.
• Morus nigra (Black mulberry)
• Mulberry plants are monoecious in sex expression.
• Inflorescence of catkins.
• Major mulberry producing countries; China®India®brazil
• The most extensive area under mulberry cultivation in India is in Karnataka.

  Major mulberry growing Indian states are: TN.→Kerala → U.P.→ Bihar→ Madhya Pradesh→W.B.→Rajasthan.

• Ripe phalsa fruits are sub-acidic and a good source of Vitamin A & C.
• Kernel contains 2.0 %and 23.7% oil respectively which is rich in linoleum acid.
• Colour phalsa fruit is anthocyanin pigment.
• The phalsa seed contains 7.17 per cent crude fat with a typical.
• The plants can tolerate temperatures as high as 44°C since high temperature favours ripening of the fruits.
• It is a subtropical crop.
• It is commercially propagated by seed.
• The viability of seeds can be retained for 6 months under cool storage.
• Seed germination of 15-20 day get ready for planting in the field.
• Seed germination per cent 76%.
• Shortest germination period shortest of only 16 days.
• It completes flowering and fruiting within 4-5 month.
• Planting is usually done 2.5-3.0m, 1100-1500 plant/ha.
• Phalsa plant is normally pruned at 0.9 to 1.2m above the ground level; time of pruning is during December—January when they are dormant annually.
• Application of N, P and K at 100, 40 and 25kg/ha.

•  
• Tamarind is at the 6th position in terms of export value, fresh, dried, powder and paste.
• It is a good source of iron.
• The red variety of Tamarind fruit contains anthocyanin while leucoanthocyanidin is present in the brown.
• Leaves are very rich in anthoxanthin, while the fruits are poor in this pigment.
• Xanthophylls are responsible for the yellow colours of the flower.
• The pulp contains 1.27% pectin.
• T.K.P. – Tamarind kernal powder, the use of cattle freed also.
• Kernal

• Its constitution makes the tree one of the useful medicinal plants of India.
• Soils including degraded soils of the arid region and can tolerate salinity to a certain extent.
• It is mostly grown in dry portions of subtropical and tropical regions of the country.
• The mature plants can tolerate temperatures as low as 0-15°C and as high as 47.5°C.
• Commercial propagation of seed / In-situ budding.
• Ideal Planting distance required is of 8 to 10m
• Opening of flowers starts in the 2nd week of March.
• The flowers are mainly staminate and hermaphrodite.
• Ripe fruits are available from October-March.
• The tree can produce about 200 to 250 fruits per annum.

Mountains play a vital role in sustaining about 10 per cent of the world population directly as they are the major source of water supply and majority of rivers originate from these ecosystems thus sustain the life of people residing in the plains. In India hill and mountainous areas are vastly distributed all over the country with the major mountain ranges in the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The Himalayas are extending in 2500 km length and 250 to 400 km breadth (Khanday et al. 2004). They are further classified in three major categories i.e Western Himalayas (including Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh), Central Himalayas (including eight hill districts of Uttarakhand), North Eastern Himalayas (including Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, hill areas of Assam and Darjeeling district of West Bengal). Whereas Western Ghats also known as Sahyadri including border of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu .

Etiology

Atopic dermatitis is genetically predisposed to allergic skin disease. It consists of atopy and hereditary cause to produce IgE mediated allergic reaction to environmental allergens.

Immunohistochemistry reveals the presence of Langerhans cell proliferation and strong positive expression of IgE in skin tissue sections.

Gross pathology

Etiology

Superficial pyoderma usually occurs in the epidermis and upper infundibulum of the hair follicle. It usually heals without scar formation and commonly caused by Gram positive cocci Staphylococcus spp., particularly exfoliative toxin of this species.

Etiology

It is caused by Staphylococci spp- characterized by superficial pyoderma in dogs. It is mainly due to exfoliative toxins of S? aureus.

Gross pathology

The lesion reveals cutaneous exfoliation, vesicles, pustules (Figure 6) and crust.

Etiology

The condition is characterized by formation of granuloma to pyogranulomatous dermatitis with paniculitis. The causative organism is normally present in the macrophage which may be Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M? bovis and M? microti.

Synonym – Cutaneous ancylostomiasis

Etiology

Hook worm dermatitis is uncommon or rare skin disease due to larval migration of the normal life cycle of Ancylostoma braziliensis and Ancylostoma caninum. It is mainly due to hypersensitive reactions against migrating third stage larvae in the distal extremities.

The condition is one of the most common pruritic skin disease caused by hypersensitivity reaction to the flea salivary antigens. Type I immediate hypersensitivity, type II delayed hypersensitivity and cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity to the flea salivary antigens have been recorded. Late phase IgG mediated reaction also caused in this condition. It occurs in dogs mostly between 1 and 3 years of age.

The disease is characterized by irregular growth and development of hair follicles and associated glands.

Sebaceous gland hyperplasia: It is a rare disease of dogs characterized by high hair coat and underlying skin, greasiness and in mainly due to excessive greasiness followed by clumping of the hair coat.

It is characterized by irregular growth and development of hair follicles and associated glands.