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Introduction The leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum L.) belongs to the Alliaceae family and is a non-bulb-forming crop. It is consumed raw by itself, combined with other foods in salads, and cooked as flavoring in soups and stews. It is a preferred vegetable in a kitchen garden but is not commercially farmed in India. Leek has chromosome 2n=4X=32, which makes it an autotetraploid in nature. It is a vigorous biennial herbaceous cultivar that has never been discovered in its wild form. For their blanched stems and leaves, leeks are grown. It is a biennial plant that is used to flavor soups and eaten as a salad. The leek was first domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean, where it was later brought to middle Europe by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. Leeks may have originated in Central Asia and/or Europe, according to several theories. Since the majority of the Allium species are found worldwide, their distribution within the northern hemisphere is not uniform.

It is more common in old dogs and also mostly observed in the cutaneous region of trunk and legs.

Grossly, the tumour appears as solitary to multiple masses as white, pink to red, smooth, and raised nodules. Alopecia and ulceration are also observed. It is mostly observed in the pinna and digits.

About the Lower Bhavani Project

The Lower Bhavani Project (LBP) is located in Tamil Nadu in Bhavani River, irrigates 83980 ha in two seasons in a year. The canal water supply is provided for one wet crop from August to December (41885 ha) and one dry crop from January to April (41885 ha). The cultivated area under LBP in Erode and Coimbatore districts are irrigated lands with canals and groundwater, and rainfed crop lands (with supplemental groundwater irrigation).

Introduction

Aquaculture is one of the rapidly growing industries worldwide with more than 300 different species being cultured. However, majority of aquaculture species are still wild and undomesticated, and the adaption of relevant technologies in the aquaculture sector has been slow. Given that genetically modified stock only accounts for less than 10% of the current global aquaculture production, the aquaculture sector has significant potential to increase production efficiency through selective breeding programmes. Selective breeding is acknowledged as a crucial element in the generation of resource-efficient, sustainable, and profitable aquaculture operations (FAO, 1995; World bank, 2006).

Identify and Describe Program You Want to Evaluate

The first step in conducting a program evaluation is to clarify why we are doing it, what we want to achieve, and what we will focus on. This will help us to define the evaluation questions, criteria, indicators and methods that will guide our data collection and analysis.

What is Program Evaluation?

This chapter serves as an essential primer on R, providing step-by-step instructions for installing both R and RStudio, one of the most popular integrated development environments (IDEs) for R. Additionally, the chapter covers important aspects such as importing data into R and setting the working directory.

Install R and RStudio

R and RStudio can be installed on Windows, MAC OSX, and Linux platforms. RStudio (the IDE of R) offers a code editor, a unified console, and a suite of visualization tools. It simplifies the use of R, making it more accessible and efficient for data analysis and statistical computing tasks.

Steps to install R and RStudio

1. R can be downloaded and installed from the Comprehensive R Archive

Network (CRAN) webpage (http://cran.r-project.org/).

2. After installing R software, install the RStudio software available at:

http://www.rstudio.com/products/RStudio/.

3. Launch RStudio and start using R inside R studio.

Introduction

Extension is a form of education, and extension services provide information, advice, and education for rural development in many countries. It was used for sharing ideas, beliefs, knowledge, and information with rural people in an informal way. In the mid-nineteenth century, extension services were institutionalized, and public funding was spent for organized extension activity in rural areas.

Extension Education

The word ‘extension’ is derived from two Latin roots, namely ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching.’ Hence, extension means stretching out Figure 1.1.

Extension does not have a universally recognized definition. According to Webster, education is a process of teaching to develop the knowledge, skills, and character of students. Sociologist Rodney Stark declares that “Education is the cheapest, most rapid and most reliable path to economic advancement under present conditions.” Education is a lifelong process, and it is necessary to transfer experience and knowledge to the next generation for political and socio-economic development.

University extension started at Cambridge University, London University, and Oxford University before the nineteenth century. The success of extension in Britain led to the initiation of extension education in the United States later. In India, university extension was introduced after the establishment of State Agricultural Universities in a similar pattern to Land Grant Colleges in the United States.

Extension as a form of education facilitates the learning or acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, and habits. As an education, it can be informal, formal or non- formal. It can also be categorized as child education, adult education, technical education, health education, social science and humanities, etc.

Formal education: It is an institutionalized, chronologically graded, and well- structured system of education that starts from schooling to higher education. Formal education is usually given in structured classrooms in schools and colleges with a fixed syllabus, course curriculum, and certificates awarded after examination. In formal education, only qualified teachers impart education to the students.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study. It is untrained panel of sensory evaluation.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10-9. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO2 : Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO2 . It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Nano-materials: Nano material have been defined as having one or more dimensions measuring 100 nm or less, or having at least one dimension at this scale which affects the materials behavior and properties (Plate 438).

Introduction

The pistachio nut (Pistacia vera L.), a small tree native to Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Iran. The Pistacia genus is a member of the Anacardiaceae family, which also includes the cashew, mango, sumac, and poison ivy plants. The tree yields seeds, which are frequently eaten as food. The genus Pistacia has about 20 species including Pistacia vera, Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia terebinthus, Pistacia khinjuk, and Pistacia lentiscus (Parizi et al., 2016). Western Asia is the pistachio nut home region, and traders brought them to the Middle East, the Mediterranean nations, and Europe. Pistacia vera L. is the only species in this genus commercially grown for edible nuts. It was probably first grown in areas close to where it grew wild, as remains of pistachio nuts dating to the 6 millennium BC have been discovered in both Afghanistan and south-eastern Iran in recent times. Pistachio cultivation progressively spread to the West from the old Persian Empire, where it was widely grown. the word “Pistachio” etymology most likely stems from the Avestan word “pistak” from ancient Persian (Mandalari et al.2022).

Health benefits

In pistachio nuts more than 50% of the fat is unsaturated. There are also 20% proteins, 20% complex carbs, and pro-vitamin A. Dried fruit pistachios nut has the highest potassium content that is very good for health. It is also great supplier of energy, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron. The heart’s functioning can benefit from the consumption of this fruit. Moreover, it participates in cell metabolism, and the potassium it contains controls the water content of the cells. The production of hemoglobin and myoglobin depends on iron, consumption of pistachio nuts fulfill the iron requirements. It contributes to cellular respiration, intellectual growth, and immune system amplification. A crucial component of bones and teeth is phosphorus. Moreover, magnesium aids in the formation of bones and the production of proteins. This nut is good source of phosphorus and magnesium also.

Agribusiness and entrepreneurship in the 21st century are evolving rapidly due to technological advancements, changing consumer preferences, and the increasing focus on sustainability. This article delves into the dynamic landscape of modern agribusiness, examining the innovations driving growth and the challenges that entrepreneurs face. It explores key trends such as digital agriculture, sustainable practices, and value chain integration, highlighting the role of startups and established companies in transforming the industry. The article also addresses the economic, social, and environmental impacts of agribusiness and provides insights into the future of agricultural entrepreneurship. By understanding these developments, stakeholders can better navigate the complexities of the contemporary agricultural sector and capitalize on emerging opportunities.

Fruits represent a vital component of global agriculture, serving as not only a significant source of essential nutrients but also a lucrative sector of the economy. However, from the moment of their inception on the tree to their arrival on consumers’ tables, fruits undergo a complex journey influenced by a myriad of factors. Among these, pre-harvest practices wield a profound impact on fruit quality, enzymatic activities, texture, ripening, and ultimately, post-harvest transportation losses. Each pre-harvest practice, from mineral nutrition to harvesting methods, plays a distinct role in shaping the biochemical composition and physical attributes of fruits, ultimately affecting their marketability and shelf life. Mineral nutrition stands as one of the foundational pillars of fruit production, with essential minerals serving as building blocks for various biochemical processes. Irrigation practices represent another critical aspect of pre-harvest management, as water availability profoundly impacts fruit development and composition. Different irrigation regimes can influence enzymatic activities, fruit texture, and the timing of ripening, necessitating strategic water management to achieve desired fruit quality while minimizing post-harvest losses. Canopy regulation, achieved through training and pruning techniques, offers growers a means to manipulate light penetration and airflow within the orchard. Moreover, the application of plant growth regulators (PGRs) emerges as a tool for fine-tuning fruit development and ripening processes. By modulating hormonal signals, PGRs can alter enzymatic activities, influence fruit texture, and mitigate transportation losses. However, judicious application is paramount to avoid adverse effects on fruit quality and safety. Harvesting decisions, including the determination of optimal maturity and the timing and method of harvest, profoundly impact fruit quality and post-harvest losses.

1. _____________ coined the term wildlife. (William Hornday)
2. National Biodiversity Board is situated at_____________. (New Delhi)
3. The term biodiversity was coined by_____________. (Edward Wilson)
4. The study of combination of animal behaviour and ecology is called as_____________. (Ethology)
5. _____________ is the place where an organism or community lives. (Habitat)
6. _____________ is the living medium of the habitat in a wetland. (Water)
7. _____________can be defined as the functional status of an organism in an ecosystem or the role played by a species in its natural habitat. (Niche)
8. The food which is totally non-nutritive and is consumed by the animals only to fulfil its stomach is called ___________. (Stuffing food)
9. The period in which the food is not sufficiently available and causes trouble to the animal, is called __________. (Pinch period)

Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a critical public health crisis, with far-reaching implications for human, animal, and environmental health. If unchecked, by 2050, the global toll of AMR-related deaths could exceed 10 million, with Asia and Africa alone projected to account for approximately 4 million fatalities. In a potential ‘superbug’ outbreak scenario, the economic loss could reach as high as USD 100 trillion, especially impacting low- and middle income countries (LMICs) like India (O’Neill, 2014). AMR complicates the treatment of a wide array of infections, transforming previously manageable conditions into fatal threats. In 2019 alone, AMR was directly responsible for approximately 1.27 million deaths and contributed to an additional 5 million fatalities—surpassing the mortality rates of major infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria (Murray et al., 2022). The urgency of addressing AMR is underscored by a World Bank report, which warns that unchecked AMR could cause a global GDP decline of 1.1% to 3.8% by 2050, and averting this scenario may require an estimated annual investment of around 9 billion USD (Aslam et al., 2024).

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine was the first authorised vaccine developed using mRNA vaccine production technology, against SARS-CoV-2. Well accepted by the population, it proved to be a major life saving intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic. This article discusses the mRNA vaccine technology and its major advantages, and provides an update on the various ongoing and completed clinical trials on the leading mRNA vaccines against various viral diseases. It also delves into the prospects and the technical challenges associated with the manufacturing of mRNA vaccine and the issues with its deployment in the low- and middle-income countries around the world. Despite the already available classical vaccine candidates, the persistent interest and continuous research in mRNA vaccine technology and the related storage, immunogenicity and lipid nanoparticles delivery aspects have helped in expanding and upgrading the vaccinology arsenals to counter diseases. The technology holds promises in opening new vistas to protect against infectious diseases and the associated complications, where safe and effective immunisations are currently lacking. Furthermore, as mRNA vaccines evolve, they offer new hope against neglected and reemerging diseases like rabies, Zika, and Nipah viruses. The flexibility and rapid adaptability of this platform underscore its potential to address unmet medical needs, laying the groundwork for universal and multi-pathogen vaccines, vital in averting future pandemics. Enhanced by advancements in nanotechnology and innovative delivery systems, mRNA vaccines are poised to revolutionise infectious disease prevention, cancer treatment, and genetic disorders, marking a new era in vaccinology and offering hope for global health challenges through continued investment in research and infrastructure.

Natural farming in India is based on core principles that advocate for harmony with nature, self-reliance, and ecological sustainability. More than a farming system, it represents a holistic philosophy that mirrors natural ecosystems in agricultural practices. Inspired by India’s traditional wisdom and promote prominently by Subhash Palekar through Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF), it stands as a low-input, environmentally responsible alternative to chemicaldependent agriculture.
No external input is a fundamental principle of this approach. Farmers are encouraged to avoid chemical fertilizers and pesticides, instead utilizing resources available on the farm—such as cow dung, cow urine, compost, and herbal preparations—to maintain soil fertility and manage pests. This closed-loop system reduces reliance on market-purchased inputs and encourages farm-level self-sufficiency.
Soil regeneration is another key tenet, viewing the soil as a living system teeming with beneficial microbes. Techniques such as organic mulching, maintaining soil cover, and applying Jeevamrutha (a mixture made from cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, and pulse flour) enrich the soil microbiome. These practices improve soil structure, moisture retention, and nutrient availability, leading to healthier crops.
Seed treatment in natural farming avoids chemical coatings. Instead, Beejamrutha—a preparation made from cow dung, cow urine, lime, and native soil—is applied to seeds before sowing. This enhances seedling health, protects against disease, and promotes vigorous early growth, rooted in natural protection.
Natural pest management uses plant-based deterrents rather than synthetic chemicals. Preparations like neem oil, garlic extract, and Agniastra (made from cow dung, cow urine, tobacco, and chili) are applied to control pests. These reduce chemical residue in crops and help preserve beneficial insects and overall biodiversity.

In India, jasmine is one of the oldest traditional flowers cultivated. It is infested by a number of insect and mite pests. The lepidopteran pests like bud borer, gallery worm, and leaf web-worm, are of significant importance. Sucking pests like eriophyid mite, lace wing bug, and thrips also causes minor damage to the crop. Dipteran pest like blossom midge also infests the crop. This chapter outlines brief descriptions of insect pests along with their hosts, life cycle, nature of damage, seasonal incidence and overall integrated pest management.
1. Bud worm: Hendecasis duplifascialis, Pyralidae, Lepidoptera
Budworm is an important pest of jasmine. Its damage ranged from 30 to 70 per cent, which had a significant impact on flower quality. The quality of opened flowers was affected by the silken tunnels and excretions created by budworm larvae inside the bud clusters (Gunasekaran, 1989 and Kamala and Kennedy, 2016).
The adult moths are small, pale white with wavy markings on wings and black patches on the wing margin. The moths lay eggs singly and glued on the unopened or immature buds, calyx and sometimes on the bud stalk, where the larvae eventually hatch and begin feeding.

Introduction
The digestive system is essential for the survival and overall health of all animals, and its proper function is crucial for the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients. In monogastric animals-those with a single-chambered stomach, such as dogs, cats, pigs, and horses-the digestive process is both complex and finely tuned to meet their specific nutritional needs. Understanding the clinical physiology of digestive disorders in monogastric animals is vital for veterinary professionals, animal caretakers, and researchers, as it enables them to recognize, iagnose, and treat various gastrointestinal conditions that may impact these 
species. This introduction provides an overview of the fundamental aspects of digestive physiology in monogastric animals, outlines common digestive disorders, and highlights the importance of this knowledge in clinical practice.
The digestive tract of monogastric animals consists of several organs that work together to break down food, absorb nutrients, and expel waste. The primary components include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and associated glands such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is mechanically broken down by chewing and mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes like amylase to initiate the breakdown of carbohydrates. The bolus of food is then transported through the esophagus to the stomach via coordinated muscular contractions known as peristalsis. In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric secretions, including hydrochloric acid (HCl) and digestive enzymes like pepsin, which help break down proteins. The stomach’s acidic environment also plays a critical role in killing pathogens and aiding the digestion of certain nutrients, such as vitamin B12. The stomach of monogastric animals differs from that of ruminants, as it does not possess multiple compartments for fermentation but rather relies on enzymatic digestion.
The chyme (partially digested food) passes into the small intestine, where most digestion and nutrient absorption occur. The small intestine is composed of three segments-the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum-each with specialized functions. Enzymes secreted by the pancreas and bile from the liver facilitate the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The intestinal lining, with its villi and microvilli, maximizes the surface area for nutrient absorption.

The greater the distance between producer and consumer, the more complex is the marketing organization required to ensure that eggs reach consumers in the form, place and time desired. Producers may decide to market their produce directly to consumers - direct marketing - or may choose from a variety of marketing organizations that make up a marketing channel.
8.1 Direct Marketing
Direct marketing includes the following methods of selling:
• Sales from the farm (farm gate)
• Door-to-door sales
• Producers’ markets
• Sales to local retail shops

Aquariums are purpose-built enclosures designed to simulate natural aquatic environments, offering a stable habitat for fish, plants, and other waterdwelling organisms. Their construction requires careful planning to ensure structural durability, environmental stability, and long-term functionality. The materials used in building aquariums are crucial, as they directly impact the tank’s strength, clarity, water resistance, ease of upkeep, and overall visual appeal.
Glass, acrylic, and silicone sealants are among the most commonly utilized materials in aquarium construction, each bringing distinct advantages. Glass is known for its clear visibility and scratch resistance, while acrylic is preferred for larger or uniquely shaped tanks due to its lighter weight and design flexibility. Silicone adhesives play a vital role in sealing joints and enhancing the tank’s waterholding
capability.
Material selection varies depending on several factors, including the tank’s size, design, placement, budget, and whether it will house freshwater or marine species. A solid grasp of these materials is essential for creating safe, efficient, and attractive aquariums—whether for personal use, public display, or commercial purposes.
GLASS, ACRYLIC, SILICONE ADHESIVES
Glass
Glass has been a staple material for centuries, used across a variety of applications, including aquariums. It’s the most familiar choice for fish tanks due to its strength, transparency, and cool, smooth surface. Its solid feel and clarity make it a favorite for both hobbyists and professionals.

Introduction
Teleost fish, the largest group of vertebrates, comprise about 30,000 species on Earth, while shellfish include over a million species (Nelson, 2006). About 400 of them have been cultivated, according to Gjedrem and Robinson (2014). One of the most environmentally friendly ways that people may get protein is through fish farming. Over the past few decades, aquaculture has grown rapidly among all agricultural sectors. Fish aquaculture, however, is confronted with several significant obstacles. Most cultivated species have not undergone genetic modification through breeding and are still in their natural state. Although there are a few species-specific feeds, most farmed species do not have tailored diets. Pathogens such as bacteria, parasites, and viruses lead to various fish diseases, resulting in significant financial losses in aquaculture (Meyer and Schnick 1989). Diseases caused aquaculture to lose billions of dollars annually in revenue worldwide. Aquaculture has had
significant issues due to aquatic toxicants (Dunier and Siwicki 1993), which has led to environmental problems in the aquaculture sector (Cao et al., 2007). Innovative solutions and technology are needed to address these issues to make aquaculture advantageous and sustainable.