eChapters

Forages can be classified according to the nutrient density in the dry matter.
Roughages: These are diets that have more than 18% crude fiber, more than 35% cell wall content, and less than 60% TDN on DMB. There are two types of roughage: dry roughage and green roughage. Roughages are classified as succulent or non-succulent according on their moisture content. Succulent feeds are ones with greater than 80% moisture. Non-succulent feed contains less amount of moisture. Roughages can also be classified based on legumes, for example, leguminous and non-leguminous roughages. Roughages are divided into three types based on their nutritional content (on DMB): maintenance, productive and non-maintenance.
Roughages: Feedstuffs having more than 18% crude fibre, more than 35% cell wall contents and less than 60% TDN on dry matter basis (DMB) are known as roughages. There are two kinds of roughages, dry roughage and green roughage. On the basis of moisture content the roughages can be classified into succulent and non-succulent. Succulent feeds are those which contain more than 80% moisture. Feed contains lesser amount of moisture is known as non-succulent. Roughages can also be classified on the basis of legumes. e.g. leguminous and non-leguminous roughages.
Roughages can be classified based on their nutritive value (on DMB) into maintenance type, productive type and non-maintenance type.

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is concentrate ingredients?

Ans: These are feedstuffs having more than 60% TDN, less than 35% cell wall contents and less than 18% crude fibre on dry matter basis.

2.    What is soilage?

Ans: Pasture whether natural or cultivated when cut and fed green to an animal in its own stall is called soilage.

3.    What is husk?

Ans: Dry outer covering of grains and grams e.g. gram husk, rice husk.

4.    What is fodder?

Ans: Any green plant or crop meant for animal feeding for supply of nutrients and bulk.

5.    What is leguminous fodder?

Field Crops: Refers to the crops grown on a vast scale. They are classified in the following ways

1. According to the place of origin

2. Botanical classification

3. Commercial classification

4. Economic classification

5. Seasonal classification

6. Classification according to ontogeny

7. Agronomic classification

8. Classification based on leaf morphology

9. Classification based on serving special purpose

The evolutionary classification based largely on the typological methods has been adopted a number of fish taxonomist. Foremost among them are Gunther and Cope (1871) Boutenger (1904); Jordan (1923); Regan (1929); Berg (1940) and Romer (1959). Out of the various schemes proposed by aforesaid taxonomists, there is no agreement among the ichthyologists regarding the classification of fishes. Fishes constitute more than one half of all vertebrates comprising around 40,000 species.

The classification of Berg (1940) is most widely accepted, it is based upon the conclusions of Jordan (1923) and Regan (1929). Many ichthyologists consider Bergs classification as a minor revision. Berg scrutinizing the merits of the other classification proposals and make advanced classification, which is accepted all over the world.

Classification of fracture and its repair in large animal practice by external completion method.

Aim

To know the different level of fracture limbs. In order to access their method of repair (Fig.1).

Complete fracture- It is a fracture in which there is complete loss of bone continuity and the bone is divided into two or more fragments (Fig.1).

Green stick fracture- It is the fracture in which, the cortex opposite to the bending force fractures completely, while the cortex under the force remains in tact, commonly seen in immature animals, (Fig-2)

Overriding fracture-A fracture in which the fragments lie side by side, causing shortening of limb (Fig-3)

Transverse fracture-The fracture line here runs transverse to the long axis of bone. Such type of fracture is caused by bending forces (Fig-4).

Oblique fracture- In this the fracture line runs oblique to the long axis of the bone. Such type of fracture is caused by bending with axial compression (Fig-5).

Spiral fracture-Here the fracture line spirals along the long axis of bone. Such type of fracture is caused by torsion, twisting or rotational forces e.g. in humorous (Fig-6)

Comminuted fracture- In this fracture, at least three fracture lines inter connect each other at one point (Fig-7).

Fruit crops can be classified into many groups or categories based on certain criteria, which may vary according to climatic and soil requirements, growth habits and of late with consumer rating. Horticultural and botanical classifications are two important types of classification followed in fruit plants. Classification often helps to identify the names and to group the plants. It also gives an account about relatedness among them which further suggest the breeding possibility and grafting compatibility. Different types of classifications followed are discussed here:

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT

Fruit plants are classified based on their climatic adaptability and it is also known as ecological classification. In horticultural point of view, this classification has got much significance. Fruit growers can select crops suited to a particular region by following the demarcations given here. Fruit plants are categorized into the following groups in this classification.

Temperate fruits

Fruit crops need exact climatic requirements for their growth and development, flowering and fruiting. These plants are grown only in places where winter is distinctly cold, they are deciduous and become dormant during this season. Plants should be exposed to specific chilling temperature for certain period for flower induction. These plants are suitable to higher elevations and they can withstand frost. eg. Apple, plum, peach, pear, almond, walnut.

Classification of fruits: Classification is the system of grouping or placing of an individual according to nomenclature. It is very useful to the pomologist, it helps to:

•    To identify and naming the crop.

•    To study the close relationship.

•    To know their hybrids and crossing behavior.

•    To know their compatibility & inter grafting ability.

•    To know their adoptability to soil & climate.

Pomology: Pomology is a branch of horticulture which deals the cultivation utilization and management of the fruit crops. eg. Mango, Banana, Citrus, Papaya, Guava etc. The term pomology is a combination of two words “Poma” in Greek means Fruits later subsequently transfer in to “Pome” in Latin word means Fruits and Logos means Study.

1. Fruit : Types and their Classification

Fruit:The botanical definition of fruit is a seed-bearing part of a flowering plant or tree that can be eaten as food

or

Fruits are matured ovaries plus any associated flower parts and contain the seeds of the plant. The ovary may be subdivided into two or more carpels (then termed compound ovary) each bearing one to many ovules. Individual carpels develop into sections of a whole fruit, as with citrus where each familiar segment of the fruit represents one matured carpel. If the ovary is not subdivided, then it is termed simple. The ovules will mature into seeds if fertilized. Fruit has three parts.

According to G.C. Ainsworth (1973) the fungus is free-living, parasitic or mutualistic, saprotrophs, necrotrophs or biotrophs and devoid of chlorophyll. Cell wall composition very variable, majority contain chitin and glucans, reserve materials glycogen, oil and mannitol, characteristic disaccharide and trehalose. Some yeast-like but majority with thread-like filaments, hyphae, branched profusely to form the vegetative mycelium on which spores are produced, asexually or sexually, free on hyphae or enclosed in complex reproductive structures. Separated mainly on morphology of the latter.

2.1 Divisions: Myxomycota

These are wall-less and quite unusual organisms only included in the fungi as mostly studied by mycologists. Possess either a plasmodium, a mass of naked, multinucleate protoplasm, which feeds any ingesting particulate matter and moves by amoeboid cells. Both of slimy consistencies hence slime molds. Four classes:

2.1.1 Class: Acrasiomycetes (Cellular slime molds)

Assimilative phase, free living amoebae which aggregate to form a pseudoplasmodium before reproduction.

I. Classification of fruit crops

1. Based on botanical relationship

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Owing to a varied agro-ecological and eco- edaphic condition prevalent in one or other part of the country, quite a large number of crops are grown in different parts of India. India is rich in bio-diversity with four hotspots out of twenty-five in the world. About 356 domesticated plant species having economic and botanical importance and 326 species with their wild relatives are found in Indian sub-continent. Besides the above, 9500 other plant species are also available. More than 50 different types of fruits, 50 different types of vegetables, 95 types of spices and condiments, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and ornamental crop plants have been recorded. To avoid confusion and identity, the horticultural plants are grouped into different categories based on similarity or dissimilarities. Grouping of the crop plants with similar characteristics is referred as classification.

Classification is system of placing an individual or a member in various groups or to categories them according to particular plan or sequence which is in conformity with the nomenclature. From time-to-time for purposes of convenience plants or fruits have been classified in various ways that makes possible to refer them to a large number of kinds under a group name without enumerating or specifying individually. The basis of these groupings varies according to the features of fruits or growth of the fruit plants that have been under classification at the time.

Knowledge of classification of horticultural plants is very useful to the horticulturists because it serves: (1) to identity and name them, (2) to afford at least some idea of the closeness of their relationship i.e. line of descent to other kinds, (3) to suggest with what other kind they possibly may or may not be interbred or crossed, (4) to suggest the kinds with which they possibly may or may not be inter-grafted, and (5) often to suggest certain soil and the cultural requirements, climatic adaptations etc. However, the classification of fruit trees or fruits and vegetables on the basis of consumer’s rating also gained attention in recent years. The consumers’ rating is mainly based on the size, shape, nutritive value and marketability of them. Each of these classifications is quite different from the other classification or groupings.

Basically, the fruit trees, as suggested by many authors, have been classified on the basis of their botany comprising of taxonomic ancestry, morphologic features, physiological functions, adaptability etc. or on the basis of agricultural and horticultural requirements. But the consumers’ rating has not been properly covered in the earlier classification. Generally based on botanical relationship the plants are classified as under.

Grouping plants in different categories on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities is referred to as classification, which helps for study of these crops in various perspectives. India is endowed with a rich diversity of horticultural plant wealth due to varied agro-climatic conditions. Number of fruits, vegetables, ornamental crops, spices, condiments, plantation crops, etc. is under commercial cultivation in different parts of the country under different sets of growing conditions.

The systematic study of all these crops becomes a difficult and more repetitive part. To avoid it; classification of horticultural crops on different aspects has been made to deal with all these plants separately. Classification of horticultural crops has been made in different groups on similarity or dissimilarity of attributes. Plants having similarity in either of the traits are placed under one group. The overall objective of the classification is to categorize the horticultural plants and make the recollections very easy and convenient.

CLASSIFICATION

• Wistar albino
• Sprague Dawley
• Long Evans
• Charles

Wistar Albino

Wistar albino is common strain found in most laboratories and used extensively for research. They have the following characteristics: (i) Less resistance of inflammation, (ii) No incidence of spontaneous tumor.

Sprague Dawley

Types of Breeds
Domestic cattle belong to the family Bovidae, sub-family Bovinae and can be classified into Bos Taurus and Bos indicus. They have 30 pairs of chromosomes, interbreed and are distributed throughout the tropics. The domestication of Bos taurus cattle took place some 8000to 9000 years ago and Hamitic longhorn and shorthorn types are believed to be their ancestors. The origin of Bos indicus breeds (humped cattle) were in western Asia. Both humped and hump less cattle were introduced to Africa from western Asia and into America and Australia from Europe by the immigrants. The European cattle Bos taurus were introduced in the tropics to be raised as pure-bred sand crossbred with indigenous breeds. As a result of crossing of native cattle with European dairy breeds, large numbers of crossbreeds have been produced in various tropical countries, which are being used in selection programs. Zebu Bos indicus cattle were introduced into United States in the nineteenth century for crossbreeding with European breeds. Breeds resulting from crosses are used in the southern regions of North America and tropical South America. Most of the cattle breed in the tropics evolved, through natural selection, for adaptability and survival to local environments. Often, breeds resemble each other with slight morphological differences, but because of constant inbreeding in one locality, independent breeds have evolved. In general, the cattle from drier regions are well built and those from heavy rainfall areas, coastal and hilly regions are of smaller build.
Classification of Cattle Breeds
Most indigenous cattle breeds in the tropics are multipurpose (milk, meat, draught) and that only a few breeds have good milk potential. Physical and economic parameters for some of the important indigenous dairy breeds and new crossbred types developed in the tropics are discussed. Indian cattle breeds of cattle are classified in to three types as under: a) Milch breeds: b) Dual Purpose breeds: c) Draught breeds

Definition of Breed

A breed is a group of animal’s related similar characters like general appearance, size, features and configuration etc. A group of individual which have certain common characteristicsthat distinguish them from other groups of individuals is known as Species.

The classification of living organisms has passed through several changes and has reached the present stage with the gradual assimilation of more and more knowledge about them. The classification is mainly based on the anatomy, life style, habits, habitats, metamorphosis and such other characteristics. Though the concept of classification of living organisms was perhaps started by Aristotle between 384 - 322 BC, it was the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (1758) who presented the classification, which was acceptable to most of the Taxonomists. He propounded the binomial nomenclature of naming each and every organism of animal and plant origin with a generic and species name. In his classification, he was consistent in using Latin names for all the organisms. He was the originator of a regular system of classification in which he recognized larger and smaller categories, the larger ones comprising of a varying number of smaller ones. Because of his contribution in the field of Taxonomy, he is rightly called the ‘Father of nomenclature’. A.D.Imms later modified the system to some extent in 1961. However, Brauer (1885) laid the foundation of the modern system of classification of insects. He was the first one to emphasize the fundamental division into primitive wingless insects, the ‘Apterygota’ and the winged or secondarily wingless insects, the ‘Pterygota’. The latest code on classification and nomenclature was approved and published by the ‘International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature’, London in 1964.

1.    Kernel type: Dent, Flint, Floury, Waxy, Sweet and Pop corn 
        •    Dent corn (Zea mays indentata Staurt.)
        •    Flint corn (Zea mays indurate Staurt.)
        •    Pop corn (Zea mays everta Staurt.)
        •    Sweet corn (Zea mays saccharata Staurt.)
        •    Flour/soft corn (Zea mays amylacea Staurt.)
        •    Waxy corn (Zea mays ceatina Kulesh)