eChapters

Cactus: A succulent plant with a thick fleshy stem which typically bears spines, lacks leaves and has brilliantly coloured flowers.

Succulents: Plants that have some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions.

Together cactus and succulents are important group of ornamental plants which have the ability to store water and survive in hot and dry conditions.

An unbranched evergreen tree of tropical and warm regions with a crown of very long feathered or fan-shaped leaves and typically having old leaf scars forming a regular pattern on the trunk. Palms have great ornamental value and are planted in the garden for special effects.

Palms are native of tropics and belong to Palmae or Arecaceae family. They are varied in forms, size and habit of growth. Palms do not increase in thickness and also do not show any distinction in bark wood and pith. Flowers are produced on spikes that hanged gracefully in many species. Inflorescences are highly diverse from large panicles with many orders of branching to simply spikes. Flowers may be bisexual or unisexual borne either on the same plant or on separate plant. Whereas, some palms are polygamous.

The wide range of climatic conditions in India provides a choice of various bulbous crops to grow them in different parts of country. The term bulbous includes a wide array of perennial plants that are grown from underground organs, including bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes. Any plant described as bulbous will normally have a swollen root or stem or even leaves underground. A large number of these plants producing attractive flowers are commercially grown now days. Normally bulbous plant has a three phases during a year growth, flowering and dormancy. Bulbous plants are grown commonly in beds, shrubbery, herbaceous border, grassy land and in pots and bowl. A brief description of some common bulbous crops is given below.

1. Amaryllis: Common name (CN): Belladonna lily, King or Star lily, Botanical name (BN): Amaryllis spp., Family (F): Amaryllidaceae, Origin (O): South Africa.

Amaryllis is an excellent bulbous plant with deciduous foliage. Leaves are produced after cessation of flowering. It is suitable for bedding, pot, window boxes, greenhouses, borders, etc. Flowers are sold in the market as cut flowers. The flowers are large, trumpet shaped and are borne in umbels having 3-7 florets in small flowered varieties whereas 2-4 florets of giant size in Dutch hybrids. Amaryllis is propagated by vegetative means. They are mostly propagated through bulbs. They are also commercially propagated through tissue culture. Important species are Amaryllis belladonna, A. angustifolia, A. leopolidii, A. moreliana, A. papilio, A. striata, A. miniata and A. traubii.

These are the plants that grow mainly for its ornamental or attractive leaves rather than its flowers and grown indoor or around the house. Foliage plants are often cultivated to show a variety of unique or exotic leaf shapes, textures and colours.

There is a tremendous scope in the use of these plants to beautify houses, offices, hotels, hospitals and almost all public buildings. In the modern concept and practice of indoor gardening, the scope of growing plants has been extended too many areas in and around the house including balcony, verandah, terraces and patios. These foliage plants can be displayed in different ways to bring the beauty to the surrounding. Some of the house plants can be suited well for decorating the corners of the rooms like Aglaonema, Acalypha, Croton, Dracaena, Cordyline, Dieffenbachia, etc. whereas, for enhancing window sills and boxes suitable plants are Hedera, Coleus, Euphorbia, Kalanchoe, Pilea, etc. For hanging purposes Monstera, Scindapsus are the first choice.

Definition: Climbers are woody or herbaceous plants which climb up the trees and other tall objects with the help of support of their special modified organs such as tendrils, roots, thorns, rootlets, hooks, etc.

Climbing plants are excellent examples of convergent evolution, i.e. having the same basic design that evolved repeatedly in unrelated groups. Majority of these plants are the dicotyledons but climbing plants have also evolved in monocotyledons. Examples are Vanilla orchid (Orchidaceae), Greenbriars, Smilax (Smilacaceae), Gloriosa (Colchicaceae), Semele androgyna (Ruscaceae), Dichelostemma volubile (Alliaceae), Asparagus (Asparagaceae), Bowiea volubilis (Hyacinthaceae), Chusquea (Poaceae).

Definition: Shrub is a woody plant with several stems/branches arising at or near the ground level from the main stem, which is perennial in nature and smaller than a tree.

Shrubs are the integral part of a garden and have immense importance in landscaping as these are used for various purposes. Shrubs produce flowers, foliage, fruits, berries and enhance beauty of garden tremendously. They are hardy in nature and require less care than other ornamental plants. Availability of a large number of species and cultivars, a wide range of variations in shape, size and growth habits, remarkable range of sizes, shape and colour of flowers and fragrance have made the shrub an important garden plant.

Definition: A tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species.

Trees are not a taxonomic group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight. Trees tend to be long lived, living up to several hundred years.

Definition: Annuals are the group of plants which complete their life cycle in one season or in one year.

Annuals are commonly known as seasonal as they complete the process of life like germination, growth, flowering and seed formation in one season and finally the plant wither out. Annuals are widely used for garden decoration, cut flower and pot plants. They are frequently grown as bedding plants and in rock gardens on the sides of lily pool and in shrubberies. Annuals are planted in the winter, summer and rainy season and die in a season or within a year.

Definition: Ecotourism that involves traveling to relatively undisturbed natural areas with specified object of studying, admiring and/or enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals as well as any existing cultural aspects found in these areas.

OR A tourism which contains a visit to an ecosystem is ecotourism.

OR Ecotourism is now defined as “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people and involves interpretation and education” (TIES, 2015).

The word ecotourism has been derived from two words ‘Ecosystem’ and ‘Tourism’, together it is made Ecotourism. Green globe 21 International Ecotourism Standard has adopted Ecotourism Australia’s definition of ecotourism as “Ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservations”.

It entails not only travelling to such ecosystems, but also helping to conserve them. It involves travel to areas of natural or ecological interest, typically under the guidance of a naturalist for the purpose of observing wildlife and learning about the environment and at the same time focusing on conservation of wildlife and environment.

Definition: Bio-aesthetic planning is recognized as the aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants to create a picturesque effect.

The term bio-aesthetic planning was coined by Lancelot Hogben. Egyptians were the first to adopt this type of planning in their cities. In India, M.S. Randhava was the flag bearer of bio-aesthetic planning.

India is one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries of the world with 46,000 plant species and 81,000 animal species described so far from 70% of the total geographical area surveyed so far. Bio-aesthetic planned city in South India is Bengaluru and in North India is Chandigarh (Punjab and Haryana).

Scope: Benefits like environmental, ecological and socio-economic realizes a greater scope of bio-aesthetic planning. Potential of plants in combating pollution has not been utilized effectively so far. In bio-aesthetics, efforts should be concentrated to maintain for the next millennium, natural landscapes which appear healthy, harmonious, diverse and unique. Thus, bio-aesthetic planning can play an important role in environmental amelioration of urban and industrial areas along with their beautification.

Concept: Man has aesthetic sense and makes efforts to create orderliness and beauty. Natural forms, colours and textures have inspired most of the human art. Fulfilling recreational needs through ornamental plants and wild animals brings the idea of bio-aesthetic planning.

Garden Features

In order to break the monotony and to enhance the beauty, any garden should contain components of varying nature. Some features are not only essential but also an important part of the visual design. Besides this, any garden feature allows to discover and save the creative ideas on a wide sheet of natural green carpet. Following are important features.

1. Arbour

It is a recessed or somewhat enclosed area shaded by trees or shrubs that serves as a resting place in a wooded area. In a more formal garden, an arbour is a small structure with vines trained over lattice work on a frame, providing a shady place. A true arbour includes a bench sheltered underneath for seating, which distinguishes it from a trellis. There are different types of arbours such as archway, wood, plastic, metal, etc. Arbour can be developed at several locations of the garden such as entrances at the main gate, pergola area, patios area, pathway entrance, pool area, etc.

1. Banks of rivers and canals

The banks of river and canal passing through town and villages are well suited for landscaping. Landscaping is one of the important processes for beautification and preventing the soil erosion near the bank of river and canal. With the help of landscaping, people can take advantage of pleasant scenery and natural environment. The plants themselves will objects of beauty and their reflection on the water surface is an additional attraction.

1. Aquarium/Under water garden

It is a glass enclosed controlled environment place for growing small tropical plants under water along with or without ornamental fishes.

It can be landscaped with artistically designed wood, stones, oyster shell, lime free coarse sand, etc.

If such aquarium contains fishes, then timely feed must be given to fish.

Plant species suitable for it are Alternanthera, Aponogeton crispus, Azolla, Cabomba caroliniana, Nymphaea, Sagittaria, Vallisneria gigantean, etc.

1. Achabal Garden, Anantnag, J&K

Also known as “The Place of the Princes”.

It was the work of Noor Jahan and built in 1620.

It was known for its gushing water.

The design was an adaptation of the traditional Persian Char Bagh.

It has three terraces with central water stream which is largest spring in Kashmir.

There are two walkways on either side of the stream.

It has varieties of fruit trees and surrounded by trees of Cheenar.

1. Mughal garden

Mughal gardens are synonymous to formal style of gardening.

Broadly these gardens are categorized as Pleasure gardens and Tomb gardens.

Pleasure gardens are meant for kings and queens.

Tomb gardens are attached to tombs of kings and queens for giving peace to soul.

Gardens are symmetrically designed in rectangular or square plots.

The garden area is divided into four plots by water channels.

The four plots are planted with trees, shrubs, etc.

The four channels represent four rivers of life.

The running water provides coolness and freshness to the garden.

Reflection of sky and trees provide unique beauty to the eye.

The axis is straight and central and sometimes represented by tree line.

The water pool created in the centre with over flowing water serves as central specimen.

Fountains, cascades are linked to central pool to create scenic beauty

Style of garden holds a distinctive appearance, typically determined by the principles according to which gardening can be worked out. There are basically four styles of gardening that are followed to establish any garden. Brief of them are given below.

For maintenance of garden, a person should well acquainted with different types of tools and implements and their uses. A tool and implement is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, describe a procedure or process with a specific purpose. Tools that are used in particular fields or activities may have different designations such as instrument, utensil, implement, machine or apparatus. The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is called equipment. The knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools is technology. Varieties of implements and tools are required for carrying out the various garden operations like digging, breaking soil, clods, removal of weeds, levelling of ground, mowing lawns, planting of bulbs, layering and grafting, manuring etc. Some of the gardening hand tools are spades, garden forks, pitchfork, hoes, ploughs, shovels, pruners and ice choppers. Many hand tools have been replaced by electronic tools but gardening and landscaping hand tools are still preferred, because they are easier to use and cheaper. Garden tools can be made up of wood, metal or plastics. Landscaping and Gardening is one of the most rewarding and stress-relieving hobbies. The most common garden tool set includes: shovels, rakes, spades, diggers, trowels, etc. Gardening tools can be power or hand driven. There are some garden tools commonly used (Table 1).

Introduction

The concept of Computer Aided Design (CAD) for landscape gardening is comparatively new. It can be defined as design and drafting of a landscape garden with the aid of computer. It can also be defined as use of information technology in garden designing. The core of the CAD system is software, which makes use of graphics for product representation. Computer aided designing is an important industrial art, extensively used in industry and landscape architecture designing and for many more purposes. For landscape designs, it represents a practical solution for the imperative needs of helping to visualise the future. Now-a-days, CAD is used to create 2D or 3D computer models. CAD assists the designer

Landscaping is an art of beautifying a piece of land or a landscape with planting material, non-living material in order to create a picturesque effect or to imitate nature. Landscaping makes a place more peaceful, beautiful, appealing or pleasing, where people can rest and enjoy with their family, friends, etc.

Landscape gardening is landscaping of a garden. More or less landscape gardening and painting on a canvas or paper sheet is similar. In both cases colours are used to form a picture, only difference is that painting is non-living 2D image and garden is collection of living plants with non living things in 3D form.

When going for landscaping, one can put anything or collection of different articles of interest in a place. It requires proper planning and for planning landscape, there are principles or facts that should be followed. It is not necessary and also possible to follow all the principles at a time in a landscape plan but there are 8 basic principles one should follow during landscape planning, which are discussed below.

The history of gardening in India is older than civilizations of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. During the pre-Aryan period (around 2500 B.C.), Indians were cultivating flowers and plants of religious significance. Later importance of gardening was not properly understood in India. But presently, importance of landscaping and gardening is realised by planners and landscaping has now become an integral part of any new establishment or property. Due to urbanization and industrialization, pollution has increased considerably and landscaping is one of the best options to reduce the problem. Landscaping is an art of beautifying a piece of land or garden or a landscape with planting materials and non-living materials in order to create a picturesque effect or to imitate nature in that particular land for human use. The importance of landscape gardening can be divided into three categories.

The status of gardening during ancient time has been presented in Ramayana, written by Valmiki. Ayodhya city was described as having wide streets, large houses, richly decorated temples and gardens. These gardens were planted with fruit trees and flowering plants and had lakes full of lotus (Nelumbo sp.) and different kinds of birds. During exile, Lord Rama and Sita are believed to have observed a number of trees and were fascinated by beautiful flowers; one of them was Sita Ashok (Saraca asoca).

Mahabharata, written by Saint Vyasa also contains description about gardens. During the Mahabharata era, pleasure gardens were planted with flowering plants. The famous tree of this era was Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), which is associated with Lord Krishna.

The systematic gardening in India is as old as civilization of Indus of Harappa, which existed between 2400 B.C. and 1750 B.C. At that time, people were living in well-planned roads cut across one another almost at right angles. There are many evidences which prove that trees and ornamental plants were associated with the Harappan civilization. India has a long history of close association of people with flowering plants. It begins with the arrival of Aryans to India in 1600 B.C. They were literate people and brought with them the four Vedas viz., Rig veda, Atharva veda, Yazur veda and Sam veda and the Puranas. They appreciated the beauty of flowering plants, lakes, mountains, forests, etc. and named their children after flowers like Kamal, Champa, Bela, Chameli, Rukmani, etc. The followers of Hindu religion worship their Gods and Goddesses with flowers early in the morning.

The life of Lord Buddha was associated with a number of trees from birth to his Nirvana. He was born in 563 B.C. under the tree of Ashoka (Saraca asoca) at Lumbini. Further, Buddha attained his enlightenment under a Pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree, spread his new teachings under shady banyan and mango trees and breathed his last in a Sal (Shorea robusta) grove.

When Lord Buddha visited Vaishali, Amrapali presented a park known as Amravana which was dominated by flowering trees. Buddhists were planting trees and flowering plants on a large scale for making surrounding peaceful and place ideal for meditation.

16.1 Entering Biological Data into Computer

After the forms have been designed, the database in ready for entry of biological data. Biological data is entered one record at a time. To enter the biological data, the user issues a command, which calls up and displays the appropriate form with blank fields. The user then keys in the data for each field in the appropriate spaces. In this manner, the user enters the data for the first record, then for the second record, and so on. In most database systems, the records are automatically assigned a number as they are entered.

16.2 Saving Biological Data into Computer

While entering data into the fields, the tab key or enter key is usually used to move to the next field. Pressing enter or tab key in the last field on the form saves the record in the database and moves to a new, blank form for the next record to be entered. In addition to using the tab or enter key to move forward through fields, one can directly go to any field on the form at any time by clicking on it with the mouse.

15.1 Computer Network

It is a group of computers and peripherals which are interconnected to share information and resources. A communication system that supports many users can be called a Network or we can say network is a communication system which interconnects many users who have something in common, either with respect to the type of data being sent or to the geographic areas that the users cover. There are three types of computer networks:

15.1.1 Local area network (LAN)

It is a small network (2 to 100 nodes) usually located within a single building or group of buildings belonging to an organization or an institute.

14.1 Computer

Computer is an electronic device designed to accept and store data, process them and produce meaningful results under the direction of detailed step by instructions.

In 1822, Charles Babbage, a professor of Cambridge University designed a machine called an “Analytical Engine”, which could store data and perform arithmetic operations and printing out results. He is known as “Father of Computer”.

14.1.1 Basic anatomy of computer

The word Anatomy of a computer means inner structure of the computer. The study of anatomy of computer is necessary to acquire the knowledge and functioning of its inner components. Thus, essentially a computer consists of the following three main units

13.1 Introduction

In 1935 Prof. Ronald A. Fisher laid the foundation for the subject in his monumental work entitled “The Designs of Experiments”. Experimental designs concern the arranging of treatments or variables in such a manner that the inferences and conclusions regarding the effects of these treatments can be easily done and their reliability measured. Experiments are made with a view to find the validity of a particular hypothesis and to have an idea about the extent of the reliability that can be placed on a particular conclusion arrived. The selection of the design will have a very great bearing on the accuracy of the ultimate results. By a random selection of experimental units it is possible to remove the ambiguity about the casual interpretation of the observed associations. Random sampling is the most essential ingredient of all experimental designs. Besides, there are many devices for increasing the precision of the inference and the calculations.

12.1 Introduction

The name was coined by George W. Snedecor, in honour of Sir Ronald A. Fisher. The object of the F-test is to find out whether the two independent estimates of population variance differ significantly or whether the two samples may be regarded as drawn from the normal populations having the same variance.

11.1 Introduction

Chi-square test is a non-parametric test. Such non-parametric tests have assumed great importance in statistical analysis and statistical inference because they are easy to compute and can be used without making assumptions about parameters as they are distribution-free tests.

10.1 Introduction

The assumptions on which analysis of large samples is done generally do not hold well in case of small samples (n < 30). In case of large samples we had presumed that the random sampling distributions of statistics are approximately normal and further that the values obtained by sampling study are close to the population values and can be used in their place for the calculation of the standard error of the estimate. These assumptions do not hold well if the size of the samples may or may not be normally distributed and similarly it is not possible to substitute the mean or the standard deviation of a small sample in place of the parameter mean or standard deviation for the calculation of standard errors. Under such circumstances the analysis of small samples has to be done by techniques which are different from those applicable in case of large samples.

9.1 Introduction

The tests used to ascertain whether the differences between estimator and the parameter or between two estimators are real or due to chance are called tests of hypothesis or tests of significance. In other words, the procedures, which enable us to decide whether to accept or reject hypothesis, are called tests of hypothesis or tests of significance. The following terms are commonly used in testing of hypothesis

8.1 Introduction

The normal distribution was discovered by De Moivre in the year 1733. Normal distribution is probably the most important of all theoretical distributions for the reason that so many physical measurements and natural phenomena have observed frequency distributions which very closely resemble the normal distribution.

7.1 Introduction

The theory of probability has its origin in the games of chance related to gambling such as throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from a pack of cards etc. Jerame Cardon (1501-1576), an Italian mathematician was the first man to write a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games and Chance”, which was published after his death in 1663. The systematic and scientific foundation of the mathematical theory of probability was laid in mid-seventeenth century by two French mathematicians B. Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665).

6.1 Correlation

The term correlation indicates the relationship between two such variables in which with changes in the values of one variable, the values of the other variable also change. In short, the tendency of simultaneous variation between two variables is called correlation.

5.1 Graphical Representation of Data

Diagrams are generally useful for the purpose of publicity and propaganda. No statistical conclusion can be drowning as these provide only an approximate and rough expression about the phenomenon. Thus for a more rigorous and improved representation of numerical statements graphs and charts are used.

Graphs are generally drawn with the help of two perpendicular lines known as x-axis and y-axis. The following are the various types of graphs, which are in common use:

4.1 Diagrammatic Representation of Data

Diagrams are meant only to give a pictorial representation of the data with a view to make them readily intelligible. Several types of diagrams are used for the presentation of data in biological and agriculture sciences. The following are the important types of diagrams in common use :

1. One-dimensional diagrams
2. Two-dimensional diagrams
3. Three-dimensional diagrams

The measure of scatteredness of observation around their average is necessary to get a better description of data. The extent or degree to which data tend to spread around an average is called Dispersion or Variation. Measure of Dispersion also called the averages of second order; help us to measure the scatteredness of observation around an average. The commonly used measures of dispersion are as follows;

One of the most important aspects of describing distribution is the central value around which the observations are distributed. A statistical measure used for representing the centre of central value of a set of observations is known as “Measure of Central Tendency”. This central value is also called as ‘Average’. The commonly used measures of central tendency are as follows;

1.1 Classification

The raw or ungrouped data are in unorganized form and need be organized in meaningful and readily comprehensible form in order to facilitate further statistical analysis. Classification of data is the first step in this direction. It is the process of arranging thing in groups according to their resemblance and affinities. There are two basic types of classification namely-qualitative and quantitative. In qualitative classification, the basis of classification is some attribute or quality like: sex, literacy, religion, etc. A qualitative classification may be simple or manifold. The classification done with respect to one attribute is termed as ‘Simple Classification’. The classification in which two or more attributes are considered and several classes are formed is called ‘Manifold Classification’. In quantitative classification, the collected data are grouped in respect of characteristics, which can be measured and numerically expressed such as height, weight, etc.

At country level, there is major paradiam shift from cropping systems towards farming system research in XI Plan period. The mandate of Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Modipuram stands changed with focus on Farming Systems and re-named as Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research. w.e.f. 1.4.2009. The All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Cropping Systems with its 69 on-station and on-farm centres representing different agro-climatic zones of the country also stands re-named as AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems. As such, the much needed methodologies and procedures for planning, monitoring and interpretation of farming systems related data are not readily available. Therefore, some methodologies and procedures which can be adopted to execute Farming Systems Research for drawing meaningful conclusions are discussed here.

A. Agronomic Considerations for Good Experimentation

For laying out of any experiment (Short / long term) at on-station and on farmers field, some of the agronomic considerations are very important for better results using experimental designs. Therefore, these are discussed here in this chapter.

1. Cropping History

The crop performance and its yield is affected by the crop grown and management followed during previous years. Therefore, for meaningful interpretation and factual reflection on yield trend due to the treatment proposed to be evaluated, the details of crop grown during previous 2 years/ seasons with details of management followed especially input applied needs to be recorded.

If x and y are related, we can study degree of relationship between them which is called correlation.

Y = f(x)=a+bx where y is a dependent variable and x is an independent variable. If x is known, y can be known.

X = f(y). Here x is a dependent variable and y is an independent variable or auxiliary variable.

A sample is just a part of a population selected according to some rule or plan. Following are some of the methods of sampling.

1. Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and the most commonly used type of probability sampling is simple random sampling. In this kind of sampling, each member of the population has the same probability of being included in the sample. Simple random sampling may be with or without replacement.

One of the objectives of experiments in cultivators’ field is to test technology for adoption in a targeted area i.e. NARP Zone, or a district. In that case interaction between district x treatment within a zone or between blocks x treatment within a district should not be significant. If the targeted area is a district, an experiment in cultivators’ fields must occur in at least two blocks. Also, if the targeted area is a zone, an experiment should occur in at least two districts in order to estimate interaction.

Analysis of cultivators’ field experiment

The on-farm trials were conducted in 25 villages on kharif rice during 1992-93. The treatments viz. T1-Farmers’ practice with local variety, T2-Farmers’ practice with improved variety, T3-Farmers’ practice with improved variety +recommended fertilizer and T4-Improved practice with improved variety +recommended fertilizer. Farmers level of NPK fertilizer was 40:0:0 and local variety was Suzata while recommended NPK fertilizer was 80:40:20.

Where Y is the average yield of a crop in a sequence over a period of years “n” and S is the standard deviation of yield over a period of years, Y max is the maximum yield of a crop in a certain year.

Example 1. Six crop sequences were evaluated in simple randomized block design replicated four times at Durgapura. The sequences tried are pearl millet-wheat, cluster bean-wheat, pearl milletmustard, cluster beanbarley, cowpea-mustard and pearl millet-Chickpea under irrigated conditions.

In many experimental situations, it becomes necessary to repeat an experiment over time, (for a number of seasons or years). This repetition (or replication) of the experiment broadens the scope of the experiment in the sense that our recommendations will be applicable for a number of seasons. In the case of agricultural experiments, for example, there may be present treatment x season interaction. So the results of a series of experiment, performed for different seasons with the same set of treatments, will have wider applicability.

We shall consider the simplest case of a repetition of experiments of identical structure for a number of seasons. Let us consider randomized block experiments with t treatments in r blocks and conducted in p seasons. The analysis of the experiment in a season is based on the linear model. Before attempting a combined analysis for the p experiments, it is necessary to perform the analysis for p experiments separately and interpret the results separately. It may be of interest to find out whether differences among the treatments are the same in the different seasons so that ‘ best ‘ treatment may be recommended for all seasons or whether different treatments are to be recommended for different seasons.

We next consider the analysis of the combined experiments considering the seasons as a random sample from the population of seasons. Analysis of Variance of series of experiments

Split-plot Design

In field experiments, sometimes a factor has to be applied to a large experimental unit. This is true when the different methods of ploughing or irrigation are to be compared. And in such cases it is possible to introduce a second factor, which does not require large plots, with a small number of levels into the same experiment, at a little extra cost. This is done by splitting the plots (called whole plots of the first factor into as many sub-plots as there are levels of the second factor.)

A split-plot design with an RBD for the first set of treatments (called “the whole-plot treatments”) is obtained by allotting the whole-plot treatments at random to the whole plots of a block and then randomizing the second set of treatments (called “the sub-plot treatments”) to the sub-plots within each whole plot.

This enables us to test for the main effects of the sub-plot treatments and the interaction of the whole-plot treatments and the sub-plot treatments more efficiently than the main effects of the whole-plot treatments in a split-plot design.

The difficulty in conducting a factorial experiment in an RBD is that, as the number of factors and/ or that of levels of the factors increase, the number of treatment combinations to be compared increases too. This in turn necessitates use of large sized blocks to accommodate all the treatment combinations i.e in a 2^4 – experiment there should be 16 plots in a block. But it has been found that the experimental error increases with an increase in the size of a block, for then it becomes less effective in controlling the heterogeneity of the units. A remedy has been found out : this is to divide a replicate (a complete block) into a number of equal blocks (incomplete blocks) and then to allocate the treatment combinations to these blocks so that only the unimportant treatment comparisons gets mixed up or entangled with the block comparisons. These treatment comparisons are then said to be confounded or mixed up with block effects. These effects cannot be separately tested or estimated. But the remaining treatment effects, which are not confounded with the block effects, are still capable of separate estimation and testing.

A treatment is the combination of N & P

If levels of N & P are 5 & 10 respectively, so number of treatments are 5x10=50.

Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

The simplest design using the two essential principles of replication and randomization is the CRD. Suppose that we have t treatments (or t levels of a factor) under comparison and ith treatment is to be replicated r times, for i = 1,2, … t . A particular case of this is equal replication for different treatments, where r1=r2= =r6=r, so that n=rt.

Experimental unit : An experimental unit is the material to which is applied the treatment and on which the variable under study is measured. In an agricultural field experiment, the plot of land, not the individual plant, will be the experimental unit; in a feeding experiment of cows,the whole cow is the experimental unit; in human experiments in which the treatment affects the individual, the individual will be the experimental unit.

Treatment : The different procedures under comparison in an experiment are the different treatments, i.e in an agricultural experiment, the different varieties of a crop or the different manures will be the treatments. In a dietary or medical experiment, the different diets or medicines, etc. are the treatments.

The experimental design and analysis discussed in previous chapters refer essentially to experiments on annual crops. Even when these experiments are repeated in different years, this is done at a new site each year .The use of new crop production practices will generally change the important physical and biological factors of the environment. This process of change can take many years. Generally, the productivity of some types of technology must be evaluated by a series of trials repeated over time. Such trials are generally referred to as long-term experiments. Long-term experiments are those which are continued on the same set of plots over a series of years with a pre-planned sequence of treatments or crops or both. Treatments may be applied every year or periodically. The same crop may be repeated year after year or once planted may continue for several years as perennial trees ,or a sequence of crops may be grown in rotation as for instance rice-rice or rice-wheat (1 year sequence with 2 crops per year ) or sorghum,groundnut,cotton and wheat, each crop cycle being completed in four years. The main features of long-term experiments are as follows :