eChapters

General evidence of deficiency include either nutrient deficiency in diet or abnormal absorption, utilization or requirement of nutrient under consideration.
Special evidence may be obtained by chemical or biochemical examination of diet.

Natural farming in India is steadily gaining traction across different crop categories like tubers, oilseeds, and spices, thanks to its environmentally sustainable approach. In tuber cultivation—covering crops like potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams, and colocasia—the method promotes organic inputs, crop rotation, and soil health preservation without the use of synthetic chemicals. Natural composts, green manures, and biofertilizers nourish the soil, while homemade biopesticides and pest deterrents help manage common pests and diseases. Techniques such as mulching and moisture conservation further support ideal soil conditions,
improving both the quality and yield of tubers.
For oilseeds such as groundnut, sesame, mustard, and sunflower, natural farming enhances soil fertility using organic manures, decomposed crop residues, and locally made biofertilizers. Treating seeds with cow urine or herbal solutions enhances germination and protects against diseases. Practices like intercropping and crop diversification help disrupt pest life cycles and improve soil texture. Pest control relies on natural, plant-based sprays like neem and garlic, reducing dependency on chemical pesticides while preserving beneficial insect populations.
In the case of spices such as turmeric, cardamom, coriander, and black pepper, natural farming methods offer considerable benefits. The use of vermicompost and green manuring boosts micronutrient availability essential for healthy growth. Mulching helps retain soil moisture, especially in hilly areas. Pests and diseases are controlled using herbal preparations like Panchagavya and Agniastra, which enhance plant resistance and reduce infection rates. These eco-friendly methods lead to the production of high-quality, chemical-free spices and support biodiversity and sustainability.

Cucurbits are major crops of countries having a wide variety of vegetables. Cucurbits include bottle gourd, bitter gourd, pumpkins, squashes, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, and cucumbers. Cucurbits are a large, diverse crop group that are susceptible to over 200 diseases (Zitter et al., 1996). A wide range of pathogens affect the productivity of cucurbits. The diseases may be caused by fungi, bacteria, Cucurbits crops are warm-season large group of crops that are cultivated and harvested over different seasons like spring, summer, and winter. These crops as a group are an important part of a diverse and nutritious diet. Melons are eaten as fruits, whereas summer and winter squashes, cucumber, and pumpkin are eaten as vegetables. In addition, cucurbits are used for fiber, utensils, decoration, ceremonial and medicinal purposes.

A wide range of pathogens affect the productivity of cucurbits, which constitute over 200 diseases (Zitter et al., 1996). The diseases may be caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, or mycoplasma- like organisms. The disease may be soilborne, seedborne (carried by seed), spread by wind, or transmitted by insect vectors. The moisture content of the seed, storage period, prevailing temperature, and degree of invasion influence the development of seedborne fungi (Anjorin and Mohammed 2009). The pathogen may cause seed abortion and rot, necrosis, reduction, or elimination of germination capacity as well as seedling damage at later stages of plant growth, resulting in the develop- ment of the disease as systemic or local infection (Khanzada et al., 2001). The diseases cause heavy loss in terms of yield and quality. The diseases caused by pathogen are controlled by fungicides against fungal diseases, antibiotics for bacterial diseases, or insecticide in case of viruses transmitted by insect vectors. The diseases of cucurbetaceous crops can be managed by adopting different cultural, biological, and chemical methods of disease management. The following management practices are required to be taken into consideration for raising disease-free cucurbitaceous crops:

Onion (Onion cepa, 2n = 2x 16, highly cross-pollinated, family Amaryllidaceae), is a valuable vegetable crop for the people all over the world. Tomato, onion and potato put together have been given a nick name as TOP seeing their combined importance globally. As per Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare-Horticulture Statistics Division, Government of India (MAFW, 2018), the global acreage, production and productivity of onion during 2016 were 4.96 million ha, 93.17 million tons and 18.80 tons/ha. Top 10 onion producing countries in the world are China, India, Egypt, USA, Iran, Turkey, Russian Federation, Pakistan, Brazil and Argentina. During 2016, China occupied I rank with area, production and productivity figures of 1.09 million ha, 23.91 million tons and 22.00 tons/ha. India was closely at II rank with corresponding figures of 1.20 million ha, 19.20 million tons and 16.18 tons/ha. Productivity-wise, USA is at the top rank (56.40 tons/ha), followed by Iran (37.95 tons/ha) and Egypt (36.71 tons/ha). The Netherlands is the world’s largest onion exporter with a total of around 800,000 tons, which is ca. 80% of its total annual production (Shigyo and Kik, 2008).

Within India, which produced 19.20 million tons of onion from 1.20 million ha (12 lakh ha), the major onion producing states during 2017-18 have been as given

Preparation of Samples

Before withdrawing portions for analytical determinations, bring the sample to a temperature of 26 to 28ºC and mix throughly by pouring gently into a clean dry receptacle and back, until a homogenous mixture is assured. If lumps of cream do not completely disappear, warm the sample to about 40ºC, mix throughly, then cool to 26 to 28ºC. In case a measured volume is required in a determination, bring the temperature of the sample to about 27ºC before pipetting. All samples shall be allowed to stand for three to four minutes after mixing to allow air bubbles to rise ; the sample bottle shall then be inverted three or four times immediately prior to taking the milk for analysis. If a sample is curdled, excessively churned or decomposed, the sample should not be taken up for analysis.

B cell : It is one of the lymphocytes that have antigen-binding antibody molecules on the surface, that comprise the antibody-secreting plasma cells when mature, and that in mammals differentiate in the bone marrow. It is also called B lymphocyte.

B.T.U. : It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1oF is called BTU.

Baby back ribs : Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

9.1. Introduction

Oceans (from Okeanos in Greek) are saline waters that cover almost three quarters (71%) of the surface of the Earth. The area of the oceans is 361 million sq. km., and nearly half of the world’s marine waters are over 3,000 meters deep.

Though somewhat arbitrarily divided into several “separate” oceans, these oceans are in fact one global, interconnected body of salt water, often called the World Ocean. The major divisions are defined in part by the continents and a variety of archipelagos, and are labeled the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs and straits.

There are a some smaller bodies of salt water that are not interconnected with the World Ocean. These are not considered to be oceans or parts of oceans, though some of them have been given the name, sea.

Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water. Oceanic crust is the thin layer of solidified volcanic basalt that covers the Earth’s mantle where there are no continents. From this point of view, there are three “oceans” today: the World Ocean, and the Black and Caspian Seas that were formed by the collision of Cimmeria with Laurasia. The Mediterranean Sea is very nearly its own “ocean”, being connected to the World Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, and indeed several times over the last few million years movement of the African Continent has closed the strait off entirely, making the Mediterranean a fourth “ocean”.

Olericulture, a Latin word, is used to designate the science, culture and management of vegetable crops. In India, about more than fifty vegetable crops are grown in different parts, depending on their climatic requirement. A number of vegetables have similarity in their method of cultivation, which makes the package of practices followed by the farmers for their cultivation very complicated and brings about a lot of repetition. Whichever the method is adopted for the classification of vegetables can systematize the preparation and presentation of the material to some extent and can avoid the unnecessary duplication of some of the principles and methods of vegetable cultivation. In different vegetables, different plant parts are used as food in different forms and they belong to different botanical families with varying cultural and climatic requirements but common insect-pests and diseases along with their common control measures.

Various methods may be used to classify all the vegetable crops into different categories but no single method of classification would be useful to serve the purpose for different groups of scientists like taxonomists, botanists, physiologists, horticulturists, agronomists, and breeders. Under field conditions, the classification based on cultural practices has been proved the best adaptable and very useful for the growers. Vegetable crops can be classified in the following ways for the convenience of different groups of scientist and growers:

Olericulture, a Latin word, is used to designate the science, culture and management of vegetable crops. In India, about more than fifty vegetable crops are grown in different parts, depending on their climatic requirement. A number of vegetables have similarity in their method of cultivation, which makes the package of practices followed by the farmers for their cultivation very complicated and brings about a lot of repetition. Whichever the method is adopted for the classification of vegetables can systematize the preparation and presentation of the material to some extent and can avoid the unnecessary duplication of some of the principles and methods of vegetable cultivation. In different vegetables, different plant parts are used as food in different forms and they belong to different botanical families with varying cultural and climatic requirements but common insect-pests and diseases along with their common control measures.

Various methods may be used to classify all the vegetable crops into different categories but no single method of classification would be useful to serve the purpose for different groups of scientists like taxonomists, botanists, physiologists, horticulturists, agronomists, and breeders. Under field conditions, the classification based on cultural practices has been proved the best adaptable and very useful for the growers. Vegetable crops can be classified in the following ways for the convenience of different groups of scientist and growers:

After attaining green revolution, nutritional security is of utmost importance in the current agricultural scenario. Vegetables play a key role in providing nutritional security in the country. They are important and readily available source of mineral nutrients and vitamins and play a vital role in the financial economy of the majority of small and marginal farmers. Further, these roles are becoming more transparent in the light of agriculture diversification as the vegetables have many agro-economic advantages and can fit into varying cropping systems under diversified conditions. After China, India is a leading vegetable producer but the productivity of vegetables per unit area is very low compared to other developed countries. Poor crop stand establishment is one of the factors responsible for low productivity. Yield and productivity can be improved by using advanced technology on the field preparation, optimum sowing conditions, correct nursery practices and planting methods.

Almost all the vegetable crops are propagated by seed, except a few. Crops are raised either by direct seeding in the field or by transplanting seedlings raised in nurseries. Direct seeding is the placement of seeds at desired depth into the final location where soil environment is ideal for optimum germination and crop stand establishment. On the other side, transplanting refers to removal of actively growing seedlings from one place to another with the purpose of having them continue their growth in the new location until harvest.

The vegetable crops like peas, beans, cowpea, okra, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, coriander, carrot, radish, turnip, beetroot, etc. are sown directly in the field, while tomato, eggplant, hot pepper, sweet pepper, onion, leek, sweet potato, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprout, kohlrabi, kale, lettuce, celery, parsley, rhubarb, squashes, etc. are first sown in the nursery beds where seedlings are raised and then transplanted in the main field. Both direct seeding and transplanting are practiced in most of the cucurbits like gourds, cucumber, melons and pumpkin.

The directly sown vegetable crops do not respond to transplanting because their embryonic roots do not produce lateral fibrous roots after uprooting unlike transplanted crops where numerous fibrous roots are generated, thus, making the plant to absorb more nutrients.

Introduction

With India’s population to catapult to a gigantic figure of 1.63 billion by 2050, it rests upon the shoulders of the country’s dwindling land resources to cater to the food demand to the surging human race with an eco-friendly manner. This requires a mammoth effort from the food producing machinery of the country-an effort which has to be inclusive of the technological innovation and extension in this field and to the fullest possible extent. Coping with the short-run challenges to food security posed by food price volatility is indeed a daunting task. But the serious concern is the long-term challenges of avoiding a perpetual food crisis under conditions of global warming. The decline of contributions of Indian Agriculture to the National GDP and an apparent stagnation of the growth rate in agriculture, non remunerative agricultural system, ever increasing population pressure, shrinking land resources, global warming and climate change, indiscriminate use of agricultural inputs, over exploitation of natural resource base and environmental quality have made the situation more vulnerable towards food security. In this backdrop, agricultural knowledge and technology accumulation, transfer, application, and diffusion are key to sustainable development and food security in an eco-friendly manner. The knowledge and technology revolution is critically different from the past industrial revolution in that it is based upon a shift of wealth creating assets from physical things to intangible resources based on knowledge and technologies. Thus, effective management and transfer of knowledge and technologies are believed to be the most critical capability of individuals, organizations, and nations in the globalized 21st knowledge society. Extension could play a pivotal role in fostering sustainability through its educational programs but there has been a growing realization that traditional extension models have not been sufficiently effective in promoting socialization of sustainable agricultural practices. Since sustainable agriculture is a knowledge-intensive system, it requires a new kind of knowledge, which differs from other forms on the basis of conventional agricultural practices. In fact, conventional extension system cannot accomplish sustainability in agriculture; because today’s agricultural extension must consider environmental implications, social issues, and overall economic growth within the agriculture sector. In such a situation, the present conceptual discussion shall be envisaging the dictum and destiny of evolving extension approaches by cherishing a clear focus on extension management perspectives towards sustainable development and environment protection and management so as to the well established extension approaches can be restructured and applied in the niche of extension management towards sustainability.

India is the largest producer of pulses in the world with 24% share in the global production. During 201011, the total production was 18.09 million tonnes from an area of 25.6 million hectare (Table 1). The important pulse crops grown in India are chickpea (48%), pigeonpea (15%), mungbean (7%), urdbean (7%), lentil (5%) and fieldpea (5%). The major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, which together account for about 80% of the total production. The pulses production does not keep pace with the domestic requirement and consequently, the nation has to import 23 million tonnes and the per capita availability of pulses has declined progressively from 41.6 g in 1990 to 37 g in 2008 (Indian Council of Medical Research recommends 65 gm/day/capita). Thus, increasing production from the current level poses a serious challenge for the nation.

Even with the best of efforts, pulses production and productivity has more or less remained stagnant. Due to the low productivitylow input nature, pulses are grown as residual/alternative crops on marginal lands after taking care of food/income needs from high productivityhigh input crops like rice and wheat by most farmers. Also, they grow as rainfed crops with little or no modern yield enhancing inputs. The low priority accorded to pulse crops may be related to their relatively low status in the cropping system. As a crop of secondary importance, in many of these systems, pulse crops do not attract much of the farmer’s crop management attention. In deficient soils, the application of micronutrients has also been found to be remunerative, yet the farmers hardly use these inputs. Seeds of newly developed varieties are not available to the farmers in the required quantities. As a result the seed replacement rate is hardly about 2 to 5%. In addition to this, these crops are adversely affected by a number of biotic and abiotic stresses, which are responsible for reduced yield. Lack of onfarm storage facilities and the vulnerability of pulses to store grain pests also results in considerable losses. Stray cattle and blue bulls are responsible for a lot of damage to the pulse crops especially during offseason, thus affecting adversely the cultivation of crops like mungbean, urdbean, pigeonpea, fieldpea and lentil in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana also resulting in instability and low yields.

1.1 Learning Objectives
After going through this chapter, you will be able to:
i) Understand the meaning, scope, functions, and limitations of statistics;
ii) Know the various types of statistics and their importance;
iii) Comprehend the various types of variables;
iv) Appreciate the role of the various statistical organizations.

1.2 Introduction

Statistics is a powerful and essential field of study with substantial importance in various aspects of life, science, business, and society. Its significance lies in its ability to provide a systematic framework for collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. Statistics is a universal language of data that empowers individuals, organizations, and societies to make informed decisions, solve problems, and gain deeper insights into the world around us.

Temperature is the physical property of an object that quantitatively expresses the hotness or coldness. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot. When a heat transfer path between them is open, heat spontaneously flows from bodies of a higher temperature to bodies of lower temperature. If no net heat flow occurs between two objects, the objects have the same temperature which are then said to be in ‘thermal equilibrium’. Temperature plays an important role in all fields of natural and applied sciences. Most of the weather parameters are dependent on it, directly or indirectly. It has important role to play in the development and growth of all living organisms in all stages of their growth.

Atmosphere receives the heat energy from the sun and its temperature increases. Due to different amount of heat energy receipt at different places, the air temperatures at different places also vary. The variation in air temperature basically results into air motion, so as to equalise the energy content of the different regions of the earth. Thus, atmospheric temperature is one of the basic elements of weather and climate.

Introduction

COVID-19, a worldwide pandemic, addresses a deflationary stun for the worldwide economy. The outbreak of coronavirus has had a significant impact on public health worldwide and all stages of various industries’ supply chain and value chain. The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is rapidly spreading from its origin in Wuhan City of Hubei Province of China to the rest of the world. The infection began in bats and was communicated to people by inhalation or contact with infected droplets, and its infection time frame goes from 2 to 14 days. Primary manifestations in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 include fever (98%), cough/hack (76%), and myalgia or weakness (44%). Severe complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), RNAemia, acute cardiac injury, and multiple organ failure. However, exaggerated immune responses may lead to Cytokine Storm. Cytokine storm syndrome includes ARDS, shock, and multi-organ failure (Zheng et al., 2020). Many people are asymptomatic also, and the severity of this disease varies from person to person. The fatality rate is estimated to range from 2 to 3%. Typical/low white cell checks can analyze it with raised C-responsive protein (CRP), periodic modernized tomographic chest examination. The infection spreads quicker than its two predecessors, the SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory disorder Covid (MERS-CoV); however, it has lower casualty. The worldwide effect of this new scourge is yet questionable (Singhal, T. (2020).

Integrated nutrient management is considered to be the key for achieving higher yield of crops and cropping systems. In general, the productivity of pulse crops has remained low mainly for two reasons: cultivation on agriculturally marginal soils and little if any crop inputs. Among production inputs, fertilizer plays a key role in pulses too like other crops for enhancing productivity levels. Most of the pulses fix atmospheric N, which is the predominant mechanism to meet their N requirement. It can enrich soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. It has been estimated that chickpea can fix (convert atmospheric nitrogen to organic nitrogen which would be available for subsequent crops)up to 140 kg nitrogen per hectare in a growing season, although measured values are usually in the range of about 20-60 kg nitrogen per hectare (Reddy 2004). It has been well established that long duration pigeonpea in northern India can fix nitrogen in the order of 200 kg/ha when grown over a 40 week period. Pigeonpea can also have substantial residual effects on subsequent crops. For example, medium-duration pigeonpea grown at the International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) (Asia Centre) could benefit a subsequent maize crop to an extent equivalent to 40 kg nitrogen per hectare. However, this capability is jeopardized through insufficient supply of other plant nutrients. General recommendations for phosphorus (P) fertilization are made in most states. However, K application is generally neglected, resulting in imbalanced nutrient supply and lower crop yields. Under intensive cropping systems, large amounts of K are removed, leading to serious depletion of soil K reserves. Pulses such as chickpea and pigeonpea remove about 60 and 52 kg K₂O/t of grain, respectively. Information compiled from various sources on integrated nutrient management in pulse/pulse based cropping systems in different agroecological regions of the country suggest that there is a wide scope for practicing integrated plant nutrient (IPN) practices in pulses and pulse based cropping systems. Practicing of INM not only economize inorganic fertilizer use but also helps in balanced fertilization and improving soil health and productivity through complimentaryeffects of fixed N by pulses and applied phosphorus and potassium.

Protected cultivation, encompassing systems like greenhouses, polyhouses, and shade nets, has revolutionized modern agriculture by creating controlled environments that shield crops from adverse climatic conditions. This method not only extends the growing period but also enhances the quantity and quality of yields.
A key element of success in protected cultivation is the efficient management of water and nutrients, made possible through advanced irrigation and fertigation techniques.
IRRIGATION IN PROTECTED CULTIVATION
Irrigation is essential for delivering adequate moisture to crops, which is crucial for their healthy development. In protected cultivation settings—where rainfall is either insufficient or unpredictable—reliable irrigation systems become even more important. Traditional methods like surface or furrow irrigation are less effective, often leading to water loss and irregular distribution. In contrast, modern systems such as drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation provide precise delivery of water directly to the plant’s root zone, significantly reducing evaporation and runoff. Among these, drip irrigation has become particularly popular due to its high efficiency. By applying water directly at the soil surface near the roots, it minimizes wastage and ensures consistent moisture levels. This technique not only saves water but also supports healthy root growth and reduces the incidence of soil-borne diseases. Research shows that drip irrigation can decrease water consumption by 30–70% while improving crop productivity by 20–90% compared to conventional irrigation methods.

10.1 Introduction

• In case of integrated nutrient management, all types of nutrients are supplied in the form of organic or inorganic manures and fertilizers to maintain uniform soil fertility.
• Continuous use of fertilizers spoils the soil structure and soil becomes unproductive in due course.
• Fertilizers applied along with sufficient quantities of organic manures will improve the efficiency of the fertilizers. Green manuring should be done every year or once in two years during the rainy season.
• Suitable bio-fertilizers should also be applied from time to time.
• Plants need adequate supply of sixteen essential nutrients for their normal growth and production, out of which carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) are needed in larger quantities and are referred as macro-nutrients, whereas, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl) are required in smaller quantities and thus called as micro-nutrients.
• An essential element is distinguished from a non-essential one on the basis of following criteria:
  1. The plant is unable to grow normally and complete its life cycle in the absence of the element.
  2. The function of the element is specific and cannot be replaced by any other element.
  3. The element plays a direct role in the metabolism of the plant.