eChapters

Nigeria: Economic and Non-Economic

6.1. Issues in Growth and Development in Nigeria

Nigeria has attempted through various reform programmes to better the lots of her citizens by providing dividend of development, such as education, health, social infrastructure. Broadly speaking, the features of an underdeveloped economy create obstacles in the way of economic development, and hamper economic progress. These features emerge out of economic, social, political, religious and institutional factors. It would be wrong however to conclude that only economic factors are responsible for poverty or economic backwardness of a country. Non-economic factors are equally responsible for the under development of an economy. The factors discouraging economic development may be classified into economic and non-economic factors which are:

As stated before, a careful assessment of the existing curriculum is essential before any modification is undertaken and must take into account the country’s education policy, political, economic, demographic, cultural, social and technological environment. Problems of farmers to be solved, needs to be satisfied, and priorities to be identified and addressed and then only the recommendations made for action.

Pesticides are any chemical or mixture intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant as well as any substance or mixture meant for preventing, getting rid of, repelling, or controlling pests. Agricultural pests include insects, weeds, fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, rodents, and mollusks. The term pesticide, which refers to these pests and cide, which meaning “to kill.” Insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, weed killers, molluscicides, rodenticides, nematicides, and other types of pesticides can be classed as pesticides. Every manufacturer of pesticides as well as companies with CIB & RC registration must provide all scientific data on bio-ecacy, toxicity, residues, and safe waiting periods that has been obtained via laboratory research.

Genetically engineered crops refer to alterations in the genetic makeup of the crop by introgression new traits such as herbicide tolerance, virus resistance, drought, flood and frost resistance, delay in maturation time of the crop and increased crop yield. They can be made resistant to pests and diseases which can significantly reduce the consumption of insecticide. Biodiversity is the feedstock for biotechnology industries. The issues relating to the Genetically Modified (GM) Foods have generated intense public debate in many parts of the world. Even though the issues under debate include the costs and benefits of the GM crops and the inherent safety concerns, the outcome of the debate differs from country to country, depending on its geographical location, strength and resilience of the farm sector, attitudes of people towards food, and so on (Anonymous, 2009). In India also, this debate has engaged the attention not only of the Government but also of the farming community and the civil society.

INTRODUCTION

Potato plays a vital rolein foodsecurityworldwide. It is the third most important food crop, afterrice and wheat. It is a nutrient-rich crop which provides more calories,vitamins and nutrients per unit area than any otherstaple crops. FAO declared potato as the crop to address future global food security and poverty alleviation during2008. In Indian agriculture, potatoplays a very important role as it alone contributes about 21 percent of the total vegetable area and 26 percent of total vegetable production of India (DAC&FW, 2017a). As per FAOSTAT data for the year 2017,India with48.6 million t is ranked second in potato productionin the world, onlybehind Chinawith 99.2 million t (Figure 1).

1. INTRODUCTION

Organic farming systems can deliver agronomic and environmental benefits both through the structural changes and the tactical daily management of the farming system. The benefits of organic farming systems are relevant both to developing and developed nations which helps for environmental protection, biodiversity enhancement, reduced energy use and CO₂ emissions (Thiyagarajan, et al., 2003). The post Green Revolution era has led to environmental pollution due to excessive use of agrochemicals and fertilizers and thus threatened the fragile ecosystem (Selvaraj et al., 2001). Organic farming conserves soil fertility and curtails soil erosion through implementation of appropriate conservation principles (Thampan, 1995). Organic farming leads to live in harmony with nature.

United Nation experts indicate that organic foods have the good opportunities for developing countries to open a space in the global market. This entails the creation of greater awareness of trade opportunities for organic products as well as of the environmental, economic and social benefits to the public.

Introduction
Information Technology (IT) has become a cornerstone of modern society, driving innovations across industries and redefining operational efficiencies. However, energy consumption has increased exponentially as the IT sector expands, making energy efficiency a critical focus area. The interplay between IT and energy efficiency is multifaceted, encompassing hardware optimization, sustainable software development, advanced cooling technologies, and integrating renewable energy sources. This relationship is pivotal in mitigating the environmental impact of IT while sustaining its growth trajectory.

Introduction
Integrating Information Technology (IT) into waste management has revolutionized how societies address the growing challenges of waste generation, collection, segregation, recycling, and disposal. Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation have escalated the global waste burden, necessitating efficient and sustainable solutions. IT is pivotal in enabling smart waste management systems through real-time monitoring, data analytics, and automation. This chapter explores the transformative impact of IT on waste management, highlighting key technologies, their applications, challenges, and prospects.

Introduction
Information Technology (IT) is indispensable in transforming national policies, governance frameworks, and administrative structures, making them more efficient, transparent, and responsive. In policy transformation, IT is a powerful enabler that can streamline bureaucratic processes, improve access to public services, facilitate data-driven decision-making, and enhance citizen engagement. As countries strive to modernize their governance systems, integrating IT into policy frameworks is vital in ensuring inclusive growth, social equity, and sustainable development. This integration is especially critical for a country likeIndia, which, with its diverse population, vast geographical expanse, and complex socioeconomic challenges, requires innovative policy tools that are both scalable and adaptable. The potential of IT in policy transformation is multifaceted and can significantly improve the efficiency, accountability, and inclusivity of public governance.

Introduction
Social sustainability has gained significant attention in the contemporary development, especially in information technology (IT). Social sustainability refers to the ability of a society to maintain and improve social well-being, equity, and quality of life for its present and future generations. It involves fostering an environment where all individuals, irrespective of their socioeconomic backgrounds, have equal access to resources, opportunities, and services. Information technology (IT) has emerged as a transformative tool in achieving social sustainability by addressing various social challenges such as inequality, lack of access to education, healthcare, and basic services. It also fosters community engagement, empowerment, and participation in governance.

Introduction
In global environmental challenges, sustainable products have gained considerable prominence. Sustainable products are those designed, manufactured, and disposed of in ways that minimize environmental impact, promote resource efficiency, and
contribute to a circular economy. Integrating information technology (IT) into sustainable products’ design, production, and lifecycle management has emerged as a crucial enabler of innovation and efficiency in achieving environmental sustainability. IT-enhanced sustainable products leverage technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain, and data analytics to reduce waste, optimize resource use, extend product lifecycles, and enhance transparency. By incorporating IT into the lifecycle of products, manufacturers and designers can make smarter decisions that have far-reaching benefits for both the environment and the economy. This detailed analysis will
explore how IT contributes to creating sustainable products, focusing on product design, resource optimization, manufacturing processes, consumer engagement, and end-of-life management.

Technical Knowledge (ITK) based special inputs / Techniques for plant growth

Growth of the plant has for long been believed to be due to the minerals absorbed from the soil and the food materials synthesized by the palnt. It is recognized that growth of the plant is very much regulated by certain chemical substances known as growth regulators. These substances are formed in one tissue or organ of the plant and are then transported to other sites where they produce specific effects on growth and development. These materials can be produced organically for improving plant growth.

3.1. Growth Promoting Substances

Are those organic solutions (like Panchagavya, Buttermilk & Coconut milk slurry, Amudhakaraisal) prepared using the plant and animal products, decayed fruit and other agricultural wastes. For example

From very early times, humans were astonished, fascinated and frightened by the weather events and the dynamism of changes that weather brought around them. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since the nineteenth century. He has tried to predict or forecast the weather mainly based on many indicators around. In the earliest record of weather forecast, the Babylonians have predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology in 650 BC. In 904 AD, Ibn Wahshiyya, an Iraqi alchemist and agriculturist in his work Nabatean Agriculture have discussed the behavior of plants and animals also along with atmospheric, planetary, solar and lunar signs in weather forecasting. This is perhaps the first work that have discussed about the animal and bird indicators for weather forecast. Though there are a variety of end uses to modern weather forecasts, indigenous knowledge and application of weather forecasts were mainly for agricultural operations. Farmers have to rely on weather forecasts to decide on what work has to be done on any particular day. They are astute weather watchers and are quick to recognize weather that is either favourable or unfavourable to their production systems. In traditional weather forecasting, the farmers has identified a set of indicators and developed a reliability factor for each of them. Predicting weather is also an important cultural component for farmers, as it is common for farmers to discuss weather indicators on the street, markets and with family members.

Farmers have used traditional knowledge to understand weather and climate patterns in order to make decisions about crop and irrigation cycles. This knowledge has been gained through many decades of experience, and has been passed on from previous generations, and the knowledge is also adapted to local conditions and needs. But the scientific forecasts are formulated at a much larger scale and so access to get location specific rainfall forecast to take proper decision at the farm level is very limited. Besides forecasting weather, the farmers has also evolved several coping strategies in rain-fed systems across the world and so today many international development agencies, universities and research institutions have started focusing on indigenous knowledge and have incorporated it in development perspectives.

Agricultural scientists and policy makers have understood that continuation of modern agriculture might lead to severe ecological and economic problems. We are also convinced that modern agriculture may not be able to meet the requirements of the ever increasing population in the future. So, we are searching for alternative technologies. Several alternatives have been proposed such as low external input agriculture, sustainable agriculture, organic farming, biodynamic farming etc. However, they require, some times little or considerable external inputs whose availability may be uncertain in future.

Hence for the developing countries, the other alternative viz., traditional methods have special advantages over modern agricultural techniques. Also the capital and technological skill requirements in the use of traditional technologies are generally low and their adoption often requires little restructure of the traditional societies. The traditional technologies are nothing but indigenous technical knowledge. By adopting such indigenous knowledge, our ancestors did not face any problem of large-scale pest out break or economic crisis unlike the today’s farmers.

Key Points

• Animal euthanasia is the act of humanely killing animals, most commonly with injectable drugs.

• Euthanasia techniques vary by species, age, and the health status of the individual animal.

• Death must be confirmed before disposal of any animal remains.

• Animal remains must be disposed of in a legal manner that does not contaminate food sources or the environment.

Introduction

Euthanasia is the act of inducing humane death in an animal by a method that induces rapid loss of consciousness and death with a minimum of pain, discomfort, or distress. Euthanizing agents cause death by three basic mechanisms: (1) direct depression of neurons necessary for life function, (2) hypoxia, and (3) physical disruption of brain activity. Because loss of consciousness resulting from these mechanisms can occur at different rates, the suitability of a particular agent or method will depend on whether an animal experiences distress before loss of consciousness. Unconsciousness, defined as a loss of individual awareness, occurs when the brain’s ability to integrate information is blocked or disrupted. Ideally, euthanasia techniques cause rapid loss of consciousness, followed by cardiac or respiratory arrest and death.

Syn.cordifolia Cogn.,C.indica Wight and Arn,Bryonia grandisL. Family.Cucurbitaceae) is an aggressively climbing vine that  spreads quickly over trees, shrubs, fences or other supports. It is also called  scarlet fruited gourd or little gourd. The name is derived from the Latin coccineus, meaning scarlet,in reference to fruit colour (Wagner et al.,1999). Vernacular names are kundru (hindi), kovakka, kova (malayalam), kovakkai, kovai(tamil), thondakayi (kannada), dondakaya (telugu). Coccinia shoot is a good source of calcium, iron, and fiber and has good texture (Anon., 2002). It is grown mostly in homestead farms for tender fruits in almost all regions of the country. It bears fruits almost through out the year where mild winter prevails. In regions where severe winter occurs, it bears fruit for 8-9 months. Although this is considered as a an under utilized vegetable, it is grown extensively in Chattisgarh, West Bengal, Bihar and Karnataka on a commercial scale and giving remunerative returns to  farmers. Availability of better cultivars and knowledge of  many other preparations and uses of this crop can propel its evolution from an under utilized species to an important horticultural crop in Indian Agriculture.

Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt), a climbing, herbaceous perennial plant in family Cucurbitaceae, grows well under hot-humid conditions. The genus name is derived from the Latin coccineus, which means scarlet in reference to the fruit color. Thus, it is also called scarlet-fruited gourd. Other vernacular names are: little gourd in English, courge écarlate in French, pepino cimarrón in Spanish, tam leung or phak tam leung in Thai, kundree or kundru in Hindi, pepasan in Malay, hong-gua in Chinese, and tindori in East Africa (Schippers, 2002; MMPND, 2007; USDA, 2007). The plant is often collected wild or cultivated in home gardens in tropical Asia, and its tender shoots are consumed as potherb (Wasantwisut and Viriyapanich, 2003). Bundled tender shoots of ivy gourd in the village market setting are common scenes in Southeast Asia (Boonkerd et al., 1993; Engle et al., 1998). The fruit of its sweet type cultivar is also used widely as a vegetable in India (Ramachandran and Subramaniam, 1983; Sarnaik et al., 2001; Bharathi, 2007). Ivy gourd has a potential to be a valuable vegetable in the tropics to diversify cropping system in peri-urban and urban agriculture, and to improve diet and health, especially where vitamin A deficiency is of developing concern.

Ixora is an ornamental plant which is a medium-sized, tropical flowering, evergreen shrub that is used in landscapes. The genus Ixora belongs to the family Rubiaceae. The plants have glossy green leaves which are arranged oppositely along each stem. All Ixoras produce clusters of star-shaped flowers on stem tips or terminal growth. They are grown for their beautiful flowers which bloom in summer in clusters of different shades of red, pink or yellow (De Block, 1998 and Husain and Paul, 1988). The colour of the wild flowers is red or reddish-orange but ornamental varieties may have white, yellow, salmon or pink flowers. It is commonly known as West Indian Jasmine. The other common names of this plant are Jungle Geranium, Flame of the Woods, Jungle Flame, Burning Love, Red Ixora, Ixora, Amor Ardiente, Cruz de Malta, Dola de Coral, Equisosea and Rajana (Griffiths,1994 and Liogier,1997), Rangan, Kheme, Ponna, Chann Tanea, Techi, Pan, Santan, Jarum-Jarum and many more. Members of Ixora prefer acidic soil and are suitable for bonsai (Frommer, 2001). I. coccinea is used extensively for landscaping and is also grown as a potted ornamental (Lakshmanan et al., 1997). Ixora coccinea and Ixora parviflora are generally used as the ornamental plants in gardens and parks.

Ixora is an ornamental plant which is a medium-sized, tropical flowering, evergreen shrub that is used in landscapes. The genus Ixora belongs to the family Rubiaceae. The plants have glossy green leaves which are arranged oppositely along each stem. All Ixoras produce clusters of star-shaped flowers on stem tips or terminal growth. They are grown for their beautiful flowers which bloom in summer in clusters of different shades of red, pink or yellow (De Block, 1998 and Husain and Paul, 1988). The colour of the wild flowers is red or reddish-orange but ornamental varieties may have white, yellow, salmon or pink flowers. It is commonly known as West Indian Jasmine. The other common names of this plant are Jungle Geranium, Flame of the Woods, Jungle Flame, Burning Love, Red Ixora, Ixora, Amor Ardiente, Cruz de Malta, Dola de Coral, Equisosea and Rajana (Griffiths,1994 and Liogier,1997), Rangan, Kheme, Ponna, Chann Tanea, Techi, Pan, Santan, Jarum-Jarum and many more. Members of Ixora prefer acidic soil and are suitable for bonsai (Frommer, 2001). I. coccinea is used extensively for landscaping and is also grown as a potted ornamental (Lakshmanan et al., 1997). Ixora coccinea and Ixora parviflora are generally used as the ornamental plants in gardens and parks.

It is also a popular choice for hedges in parts of South East Asia like Thailand. Red Ixora flowers are commonly used in Hindu worship as well as in Indian folk medicine. The flowers, leaves, roots and the stems are used to treat various ailments in the Indian traditional system of medicine, the Ayurveda. The fruits are used as a dietary source. The plant possesses antioxidative, antibacterial, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, antidiarrhoeal, antinociceptive, antimutagenic, antineoplastic and chemopreventive effects. The oil extracted from the flowers is helpful in conditions like scabies, eczema, pruritis and other skin infections. It is also used for hedges and borders and planted as an indoor potted plant. In laboratory tests, extracts of Jungle Geranium have shown anti-bacterial (Kumer et al., 1997) and anti-tumour (Serrame and Lim-Sylianco, 1995 and Latha and Panikkar, 2000) activity. From a methanol extract of the flowers, 13 chemicals were identified including ursolic acid which has known antitumor and antiviral activity (Monteath et al., 2001). In the traditional medicine of India, infusions of the leaves and juice from the roots are used to treat a wide variety of ailments including dysentery, ulcers, and gonorrhea (Parrotta, 2001).

Ixora is an evergreen flowering shrub valued for its attractive clusters of brightly coloured flowers and its suitability for loose flower production, religious offerings, garlands and landscaping. The crop performs well under tropical and subtropical conditions and is appreciated for its extended flowering period. This chapter presents the botanical characteristics, origin, distribution, genetics and important varieties of Ixora. It discusses suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural practices. Special attention is given to pruning and canopy management for improving flowering. The chapter also covers important insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling and yield, providing practical guidance for commercial Ixora production.

Jasmonic acid: Jasmonic acid is derived from the fatty acid, linolenic acid. It is a member of the jasmonate class of plant hormones. It is biosynthesized from linolenic acid by the octadecanoid pathway. The major function of JA and its various metabolites is regulating plant responses to abiotic and biotic stresses as a well as plant growth and development processes.

Jaeschkea oligosperma Knobl. (Gentianaceae): Ladakhi- Tikta [W]. Annual herb, along scrubby alpine slopes of Ladakh. Leaves lanceolate, blunt. Flowers bluish to reddish purple. The plant is consumed raw as blood purifier.

Judgment sampling: Judgment sampling is utilized frequently during qualitative research to develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger populations. The research worker’s decision is used for selecting items which are considered as representative of the population in judgment sampling.

Jaggery: Raw brown / unrefined brown sugar in lump made from palm sap (Plate 365).

Jam: A preserved product prepared on boiling pectin contained in fruit pulp with required amount of sugar, water and acid to a reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position (Plate 366).

Jam pack: The packing of the commodity tightly or in excess is called Jam pack.

Jamaica rum: Heavy bodied rum made by slow fermentation and marked by a pungent bouquet.

Jamboline: A type of glucose found in the jamun fruit help in cure of the diabetes in the patients.

Jelly: A product prepared by boiling clear extract of fruits with sugar. It should be transparent, well set, and tender enough to quiver but not flower and when cut; it should retain its shape and show a clean cut surface (Plate 367).

Jaggery or Gur: Unrefined brown coloured sugar produced mainly in India by evaporation of sugar cane juices. Or a crude brown sugar made from the sap of coconut or palmyra palm trees, sold in round cakes or lumps.
Jam: A fruit preserve made by mixing fruit or boiling it with sugar and water and adding extra gelling agent if required, usually pectin. The high sugar concentration inhibits but does not totally prevent proliferation of microorganisms, so jam is usually bottled hot in sterile jars with a seal, or sterilized after bottling.
Jasmine: Natural flavourings with warm, spicy characteristics derived from flowers and leaves of jasmine (Jasminus spp.). Predominant flavour compounds and aroma compounds include jasmonates, jasmones, benzyl acetate, indol and eugenol.
Jellied milk: Milk to which is added sugar, flavourings, thickening agents and gelling agents. It is also known as jellified milk.
Jellies: Small, soft sweets, usually fruit flavoured, of gelatinous texture, made in various shapes and often coated with sugar. The singular term, jelly, is used to refer to jam-like products, usually clear, that are made from strained fruits containing pectins which are boiled with sugar. Also refers to soft, semi- transparent foods prepared from gelatin which are sweetened, flavoured, cooled in a mould and eaten as desserts.

Canavalia ensiformis is a vine that originated in South and Central America and has since spread throughout the tropics and subtropics of the planet. It’s used as a food source, fodder, and a cover crop or green manure. As a minor vegetable crop, jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), commonly known as horse bean, is extensively dispersed in the tropics and subtropics. Jack bean is a semierect annual herb with a bushy appearance. It is only grown on a small scale in India’s eastern and north-eastern regions. Immature pods and seeds are cooked and eaten like a vegetable. The pods should be cooked in water for 15 minutes before cooking, and then the boiling water should be drained.

Genus : Artocarpus 
Species : heterophyllus L. (Lamk.)
Family : Moraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 56

Afamous traveller John de Marignolli has described jackfruit as ‘there is again another wonderful tree, which produced fruit on the trunk, and was very pleasing to see and the fruit was as big as a lamb‘. The rind is hard and has to be cut open by a sharp knife, the pulp inside is of pleasant flavour sweetness of which matches the honey and usually contains 500 or more chestnut like seeds which are eaten after roasting. In its place of origin (India) where it has been grown since ancient times it is held in great esteem. Theopharatus and Pliny who wrote about jackfruit also expressed similar opinion about the fruit. In India several vernacular names are given like Kanthal, Kathal, Panasa and Kantaka.

The jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. of the family Moraceae, is also called jak-fruit, jak, jaca and, in Malaysia and the Philippines, nangka; in Thailand, khanun; in Cambodia, khnor; in Laos, mak mi or may mi; in Vietnam, mit. It produces the largest known edible fruit. In South-India, it is a common shade tree for many plantation crops. A jackfruit contains 28.7% pulp, 11.5% seed and 59.8% rind, sheath and core.

The place of origin of Jackfruit is not knows exactly, but it is believed to be indigenous to the rainforests of the Western Ghats of India. It is found at low elevations throughout India, Burma, Ceylon, southern China, Malaysia, and the East Indies. It is common in the Philippines, both cultivated and naturalized. It is grown to a limited extent in Queensland and Mauritius. In India it grows in a wild and semi-wild state in Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and states along western Ghats range, particularly Kerala, Karnataka and Maharastra.

Cultivars: Rasdar, Khajwa, Rose-scented or Gulabi, Champa, Hazari, Rudrakshi.

Uses

Both mature and immature fruits as well as seeds are used for various purposes. Ripe fruit is used for dessert purpose and processing into various products, while unripe bulbs are used for making chips. The immature fruit and seeds are used as vegetable. The bark is used for tanning purpose. Heart-wood yield a yellow dye. A yellow dye can also be extracted from the wood particles and used to dye cotton. The latex which flows from all parts of the plant when injured is also used as adhesive. The resins within the latex may also have some value in varnishes. The timber is a medium hardwood with desirable characteristics for making furniture, oars, implements and musical instruments and the wood is also used in construction. It is termite proof and fairly resistant to fungal and bacterial decay. The roots of older trees are good materials for carving and picture framing Leaves are utilized as a green fodder. Several processed products, such as squash, nectar, fruit bar, toffies, jams, canned and dehydrated pulp, beverages, etc. are prepared from the pulp. The seeds can be eaten boiled, roasted or dried and salted as table nuts, or they can be ground to make flour and blended with wheat flour for baking (International Centre for Underutilized crops, 2003).

The jackfruit tree or jack or simply known as jak (Artocarpus heterophyllus) belongs to the mulberry family (Moraceae) and its fruit, jackfruit, is known as the “poor-man's food” (Bose, 1985; Haq, 2006; Ramanani and Rao, 2001; Rowe-Dutton, 1976; Sonwalkar, 1951; Verheji and Coronel, 1992). It is believed to be native to Southwestern India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka (Answers.com, 2009). It is possibly also native to the Philippines and also East to the Malay Peninsula. The fruit is large, oval and covered with a thick rind that has hexagonal protrusions. Inside the fruit, we find the yellow, fleshy and banana-flavoured carpel or large "bulbs" (which are botanically the perianths) massed among narrow ribbons of thin, tough undeveloped perianths (or perigones), around a central, pithy core. Each bulb encloses a smooth, oval, light-brown coloured "seed" (endocarp) covered by a thin white membrane (exocarp).

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam) is a multi-purpose tree species that provides food, timber, fuel, fodder and medicinal and industrial products. It is one of the species that has been brought into wider cultivation through a farmer-driven domestication process because its products meet the household needs of families with limited land, which require wood and animal feed to ensure family food security. Despite such vast potential and usefulness, jackfruit remains an underutilized fruit species and deserves to be given the necessary thrust for research and development. There is little progress on the genetic improvement of the species, including study on its reproductive biology, even though it demonstrated substantial use and importance. Therefore, a brief background on the reproductive biology of jackfruit is covered here before dealing with its genetic improvement.

Jackfruit is believed to be indigenous to the rain forests of the Western Ghats of India and the name “Jack fruit” is derived from the Portuguese word Jaca, which in turn, is derived from the Malayalam language term, Chakka. The jackfruit has played a significant role in Indian agriculture for centuries. Archeological findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years ago. During the season, each tree bears as many as 250 large fruits, supposed to be the largest tree-borne fruit in the world. The fruit varies widely in size, weigh from 3 to 30 kg and has oblong or round shape measuring 10 cm to 60 cm in length and above 25 to 75 cm in diameter. 

Shoot and fruit borer : Diaphania (Margaronia) caesalis :  Pyraustidae

The shoot-and fruit-borer D.caesalis is a major pest of jackfruit in India. The larvae are reddish brown with pale brown head and thin hairs from black warts. The caterpillars bore into the shoots, buds and fruits.  Affected shoots wilt or dry up and the fruits rot and drop. The adult is brown with grey elliptical patterns on the wings.

Origin and history: Jackfruit is a common and popular fruit crop of the low land tropics of eastern and southern parts of India. This fruit tree grows well without much care. It is the largest edible fruit (20-40kg), in Srilanka a fruit of about 120 kg was harvested and created the world record. The fruit is also called as poor man’s food in eastern and southern part. The tree has considerable potential, but it is yet to receive due attention in India it is not generally cultivated in regular plantations and is mainly grown in homestead for domestic uses and as a shade tree in coffee or cardamom plantations. The largest area of jack fruit is in Assam, jack fruit can grow in a wide variety of soil but in grow well in rich, deep alluvial soil.

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), belonging to the family Moraceae, is indigenous to the rain forests of the Western Ghats of India (Menon and Peter, 2011; Amma anbd Kumaran, 2011; Alila and Sanyal, 2011). It spread early onto other parts of India, south-east Asia, the East Indies and the Philippines. It is often planted in central and eastern Africa and is fairly popular in Brazil and Surinam (Menon, 2011). Its tree is adapted to humid tropical and near-tropical climates. The jackfruit tree is handsome and stately. In the tropics, it grows to an enormous size. One of the popular cultivar, Ceylon, was introduced into India from Ceylon and planted extensively in our country.

PRESENT STATUS

India is the second largest producer of jack fruit in the world and better known as the motherland of jackfruit (Verhji and Coronel, 1992; Chadha, 2003; Amma and Kumaran, 2011). Though, it is indigenous to India, but also found widely grown in Bangladesh, Burma, Sri lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brazil and other tropical countries (Milan, 2011). In India, it has wide distribution in Asam, Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, foothills of the Himalayas and Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Jackfruit is the national fruit of Bangladesh. It is one of the three auspicious fruits of Tamil Nadu along with mango and banana. Jackfruit is very extensively grown all over the state of Tripura. As per the records of the Department of Horticulture and Soil Conservation, Government of Tripura, the area under jackfruit is about 9,012 ha with a total production of 2,69,404 tonnes (2012-13).

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., Syn., Artocarpous integrifolia L.) is an evergreen tree species. Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) is a close relative of jackfruit. It belongs to Moraceae family along with fig and mulberry. It is a tree borne fruit crop species producing biggest size fruit among fruit crops. Jackfruit is the national fruit of Bangladesh and Indonesia (Matin, 2015). In southern India, Jackfruit received a respected status symbol. The state government of Kerala declared it as the state fruit of Kerala to promote the ‘Kerala Jack fruit’ and its value-added products as a brand, highlighting its organic and nutritious qualities among people.

• Jackfruit is eaten unripe at 25-50% full size as a vegetable or ripe as a fruit.
• The seeds are boiled or roasted and used in many culinary preparations. The seeds are very rich in carbohydrate and protein.
• Highest production in Assam.
• Jackfruit is a monoecious plant.
• The male inflorescence is long and light green and grows to a length of 5 to cm by 2.4cm.
• Pollen production is abundant and ranges from 1,50,00,000 to 1,70,00,000 per catkin. The percentage of pollen fertility ranges from 89 to 93 and the pollen diameter ranges from 16 to 22.
• Being cross-pollinated and mostly seed propagated, the jack fruit has innumerable types or forms considering the fruit characteristics.
• Gulabi, Champa, Hazari, Rudrakhs, Black Gold, Golden Nugget, J-31, Honey Gold and Lemon Gold.

Present study was undertaken to assess the effect of sepsis on purinergic signaling with special reference to P2Y6 and P2X7 receptors in mouse aorta; and to unravel the interplay between purinergic receptor (P2Y6) and angiotensin II type I receptor (AT1R) in mediating vascular hyporeactivity during sepsis. Sepsis significantly decreased total erythrocytes count, haemoglobin level, total leukocytes count and differential leukocytes count compared to sham-operated mice (SO). Sepsis significantly increased plasma levels of ALT, AST, BUN, creatinine values. Similarly, sepsis significantly increased total bacterial count in peritoneal lavage, blood and spleen compared to healthy control. Functional studies revealed that in mice of SO groups, high K+-depolarising solution produced almost equal contraction in the aortic rings having the intact-endothelium or denuded. But compared to the SO group, mice of the sepsis group, irrespective of the presence or absence of endothelium in aortic rings, exhibited significantly reduced contractile response following exposure to high K+-depolarising solution.

Jaggery making is a simple process comprising crushing of sugarcane for juice extraction, filtration and boiling of juice for concentration and then cooling and solidifying to give jiggery blocks.

Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with required quantity of sugar to thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. It should contain not less than 68.5 per cent soluble solids. Jam may be made from a single fruit (apple, strawberry, banana, pineapple etc.) or from combination of two or more fruits. Jam contains 0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40%.

Jam : It is a product prepared by boiling to a suitable consistency, fruit pulp with sufficient quantity of sugar, acid and pectin so as to set and become firm enough to hold the tissues in position. About 45 parts of pulp are used with every 55 parts of sugar. The finished product should not contain less than 68 per cent total soluble solids.

Jelly : Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit pectin extract with sugar in the presence of appropriate amounts of acid so as to set into a clear gel. A perfect jelly is transparent, devoid of haziness or any suspended material well set, but not too stiff and should have original flavour of the fruit. When cut it should retain its shape and show a smooth cut surface.

Marmalade : It is a fruit jelly like product in which slices of fruit or peel are suspended in the set gel. Mostly they are prepared from citrus fruits like oranges, lemons etc.

Jam:-Jam is a product made by boiling fruit pulp with sufficient sugar to a reasonably thick consistency. Jam is mainly prepared by apple, pear, sapota, apricot, peach, papaya, karonda etc. It can be prepared from one kind of fruits or from two or more kind of fruits. In general jam contain 0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40%.