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India is the second-largest producer of fruits in the world after China. As per the National Horticulture Database (3rd Advance Estimate), the area under cultivation of fruits is 6.914 million hectares with a production of 103.027 million tonnes. Mango (34.71%) ranks 1st in the area, followed by citrus (15.42%), banana, and grapes (2.14%), standing in the 9th position. Likewise, Mango (22.4%) occupies the 2nd position in production, followed by Citrus (12.89%) and Grapes, sharing around 3%. Underutilized fruit crops, such as aonal, bael, ber, Jamun, and tamarind, and minor fruit crops like phalsa, karonda ker, salvadora, etc., are grown in drier tracts of the country, including the arid region. Some of the crops introduced as non-traditional crops have revolutionized the fruit industry in India. Although the total acreage of cultivation and production of fruit crops has accelerated annually, the productivity of fruit crops has been on a declining trend due to several factors impacted by abiotic stresses. Since plants’ first line of defense lies in the roots, the success or failure of orcharding enterprises depends upon rootstocks.

Introduction

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is a monocotyledonous and dieocious species belonging to the family Palmae. The Latin name of the date palm, Phoenix dactylifera, is derived from the Phoenician name “Phoenix,” which means date palm, and dactylifera is derived from the Greek word “daktulos,” which means a finger. In India, generally, two species of Phoenix are found, of which, Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. called “desi khajoor,” is found throughout the country but t produces inferior quality fruits. The fruit contains large stones with less pulp content.

Date palm is considered one of the world’s oldest cultivated fruit trees. Archeological evidence suggests that the date palm was domesticated some 6000 years ago in the Mesopotamian region. It is widely cultivated in arid regions of the Middle East and North Africa. It is also one of the most appropriate fruit trees, and it can be easily grown under saline soil and water conditions. It grows well in poor, arid soils due to its hardy plant characteristics and deep root system. Date palm is believed to be indigenous to countries around the Persian Gulf. In the Indus Valley, date palm is believed to have been introduced by the soldiers of Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. and during the Muslim invasions at the beginning of the eight century AD. Date palm was commercially cultivated in Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Iran, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Pakistan, and Sudan, among many other Near East and North African countries. In India, dates are grown in the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu (Table 1).

Background

Water is the most precious input for dryland horticulture, and therefore, its use should be planned judiciously. Rainwater harvesting and its management play a significant role in horticultural production. The rainwater can be diverted either directly to tree basins in situ or in suitable structures ex situ, which can later be utilized as lifesaving irrigation. In sandy soils, in situ conservation should be popularized, while in heavier soils, ex-situ conservation should be popularized. The water thus collected remains stored deep into the soil profile, escapes from evaporative losses, and is available during critical periods of demand. Perennial fruit trees, once established, get the advantage of any time it rains during the year, unlike annual crops. Water harvesting in khadins in parts of the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan and its use in raising crops and trees is the age-old practice of in situ water harvesting. The hilly, rocky, and sloppy lands generate runoff, which can be collected in ponds or tanks and recycled for the establishment of fruit plantations and lifesaving irrigation at critical stages. In the same stance, nutrient management also plays an important role in the successful cultivation of horticultural crops under dryland. The arid zone soils are very poor in the majority of nutrients except potash. Enrichment of soil with organic and inorganic sources is essential for optimum production of fruits and vegetables. The application of chemical fertilizers has made miracles initially in agriculture and horticulture. However, increasing awareness of environmental degradation due to various anthropogenic activities has been expressed worldwide about the over-reliance on mineral fertilizers, which causes environmental penalties. It has also led to a deficiency of several micronutrients. Therefore, the option left is whether to revert back to traditional farming using organic input or to follow some middle path by integrating both organic and inorganic. So far as present knowledge is concerned, organic manuring alone cannot maintain the required productivity and demand for food.

The Indian arid zone is one of the largest subtropical deserts in the world, of which 20% is arid and the rest is semi-arid. A hot arid zone is spread over 31.7 million ha and confined to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana. The major part of the hot arid region of the country lies in western Rajasthan (19.62 million ha), followed by north-western Gujarat (2.16 million ha). It is characterized by a high aridity index, extremes of temperature, low and variable precipitation, very high wind velocity and dust storms, high soil pH, a high infiltration rate, and minimal availability of groundwater and saline ground irrigation water. Under such harsh climatic conditions, cultivating vegetable crops in open conditions results in meager and poor-quality yield, which fetches less return per unit area. By creating a suitable microclimate for plant growth throughout the year, vegetables can be cultivated under adverse climatic conditions. It is possible through protected cultivation, which has tremendous scope in peri-urban areas of the country. It is the best way to increase the productivity and quality of vegetables, especially cucurbits. India is the world’s second-largest producer of vegetables, next only to China.

Introduction

The ill effects of chemicals used in agriculture have changed the mindset of consumers in different countries, who are now buying organic products with a high premium for health. Policymakers are also promoting organic agriculture for the restoration of soil health and the generation of the rural economy, apart from making efforts to create a better environment. The world principles of organic farming have emerged in the form of biological farming, ecological farming, permaculture, biodynamic agriculture, green farming, bio-intensive farming, zero-input agriculture, etc..

Organic agriculture is one of the broad spectrums of production methods that are supportive of the environment. Organic production systems are based on specific standards precisely formulated for food production and aim at achieving agroecosystems that are socially and ecologically sustainable. Organic farming practices help in increasing carbon sequestration, soil and water conservation, and minimizing risk in agriculture. The important aspects of organic farming with respect to water conservation are mentioned in this chapter.

Nutraceuticals have received considerable attention for their expected safety and potential nutritive and therapeutic effects. These were used as alternatives to modern medicines that promote quality of health, increase the nutritional value of the diet, and prolong life expectancy. Major constituents of nutraceuticals are herbals; various nutrients and dietary supplements are involved in preventing different diseases and minimizing the pathophysiology of the disease too. It also acts as an immune boosting, natural antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective, and organ protective agent, in addition to different health-promoting effects. Ultimately, they ensure a better quality of life.

The scope of the nutraceutical field is plenty both in terms of type and the varieties. The nutraceuticals industry in India is one of the rapidly growing markets. Higher- and upper-middle-class consumers are perceiving nutra ceuticals as alternatives to prescribed drugs and exclusively for their beneficial properties without any side effects. Consumers are showing sharp interest in nutraceuticals for boosting energy and improving their physical endurance and mental alertness. Nutraceutical industries are focusing on developing new products with innovative formulations and using proper advertisements to choose the right products. Nutraceuticals have significant promise in the promotion of human health and the prevention of disease. They are widely accepted by all age groups due to their safety, higher quality, purity, efficacy, health-promoting, and disease-curing activities. The newest trend is moving toward nutraceuticals, leading to a new era of medicine and health. It is still in its infancy in India. But in this hype era, we must say, “let food be your medicine” and “proper nutraceuticals daily can keep the medicine away.”

Water is a very essential component for human civilization, living organisms, and natural habitats. It ma.kes up a major part of plant biomass (about 90% of plant cytoplasm; Singh, 2014). Irrigation, the largest water user sector, is currently under pressure to produce more with higher quality by using limited water to feed the increasing population of the country. The highest proportion of water is consumed by agricultural crops, which is called the blue water footprint, and it is assumed that the water scarcity will increase in the future in view of the changing climate. India has 18% of the world population; however, the water resources are only 4%. Even with all the planning and development, the country has not even been able to provide sufficient drinking water to all at the end of the 20th century. The water sector is facing a number of challenges regarding the availability, accessibility, use, and sustainability of its fresh water resources. Further, the distribution of water in the country is also uneven over space and time. Unfortunately, Rajasthan is the driest state in the country and has been water scarce (with per capita water availability below 1000 m3/year) since 1991. The efficient use of water in agriculture/ horticulture without affecting crop productivity or quality by adopting water saving irrigation techniques is the foremost need. Fruit crops, which have gained commercial attention in recent years, are an important component of Indian agriculture. Due to low irrigation and water use efficiencies, irrigation managers are looking for the introduction of effective water-saving devices and practices for water management in fruit crops.

In irrigated agriculture, water is the most important and precious input among all the inputs required for the biological activities of the plant. It is also a key input not only for ensuring food security but also for sustainable socio economic development. Water plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural production and provides food security. On a global scale, 97.5% of water resources are salty ocean water, with only only 2.5% being fresh water. The bulk of the latter occurs in the polar ice and glaciers, as well as deep aquifers, some in water bodies like rivers and lakes, and in soil moisture. On the whole, less than 1% of the world’s fresh water resources are available for human use. The world’s average annual precipitation of about 1100 mm, marked by wide variation in water availability, is creating a great divide in regions, resulting in plenty of regimes and scare/acute shortage regions.

In India, the average annual precipitation, including snowfall, is 4000 billion cubic meter (bcm), of which water availability in the river systems is estimated at 1869 bcm, and out of which only 1122 bcm can be used. About 690 bcm is surface water and 432 bcm is ground water. As compared to the world’s average annual rainfall of 1100 mm, India receives 1170 mm, which is highly erratic and uncertain in both time and space. Thus, in India, very limited fresh water is available for use because of competitive and conflicting demand from the agriculture, industry, power, and domestic sectors, which is expected to increase from 10.7% in 1990 to 22.5% in 2025. While that of agriculture will decrease from 89.3% in 1990 to 77.6% in 2025. The projected requirement of water for use by the different sectors shows an increase in energy and industry as compared to the domestic and irrigation sectors by 2025, indicating a growing scarcity of water availability in the future.

1. Introduction

Human activities significantly lead to deterioration of ecological systems, affect individual organisms, and disrupt natural ecosystems. The rise in foreign compounds, such as heavy metals and pesticides, in aquatic ecosystems due to human activities has spurred extensive global research efforts (Wester et al., 2002). The Union’s Water Framework Directive (WFD) mandates monitoring programs to assess water body health. In environmental studies, understanding the impact of contaminants on aquatic life requires a multifaceted approach (Ullah and Zorriehzahra, 2015). Biomarkers that observe biological responses at various levels offer crucial insights into the presence and bioavailability of toxicants, complementing traditional methods (Yancheva et al., 2016). These indicators, termed early warning signals, are vital for evaluating exposure, effect mechanisms, susceptibility to contaminants, and enhancing predictive models (Yancheva et al., 2016). Integrating biomarkers into ecological studies provides a holistic understanding of environmental stressors and their implications in aquatic organisms.

2. Why is fish used as a model organism in ecotoxicological studies?

According to the Water Framework Directive (WFD), fish serves as a crucial indicator of river ecological status (Ullah and Zorriehzahra 2015). Their diverse sizes, ages, trophic levels, and sensitivity to various toxicants make them excellent indicators of water contamination (Wester et al., 2002). Fish adapt their metabolic functions in response to environmental changes, which makes them valuable in toxicological research. Monitoring sentinel fish species is a widely accepted method for assessing toxicant accumulation and its impact on human health (Wester et al., 2002). Fish, with their developed osmoregulatory, endocrine, nervous, and immune systems, are preferred to invertebrates in toxicological studies. Fish can absorb toxicants through both waterborne and dietary exposure, allowing the evaluation of contaminant transfer through the food chain. Key tissues for ecological, toxicological, and pathological studies in teleost fish include the gills, liver, and kidney because of their high metabolic activity and tendency to accumulate toxicants (Wester et al., 2002).

1. Introduction

Recirculatory Aquaculture Systems (RAS) have garnered attention as a sustainable solution to address the environmental and economic challenges associated with traditional aquaculture practices. Recent studies, such as those conducted by Martins et al. (2023) and Chen et al. (2024), have underscored the efficiency and resource conservation benefits of RAS. This section introduces the overarching opportunities and challenges in RAS, laying the foundation for a detailed examination of the latest developments in the field, opportunity presented by RAS lie in its capacity for water conservation. Martins et al. (2023) highlight the continuous filtration and recirculation of water within the system, significantly reducing overall water usage. This not only addresses environmental concerns but also aligns with the broader goals of sustainable aquaculture and provides a unique advantage in biosecurity, as emphasized by Li et al. (2022). The ability to meticulously control water quality parameters minimizes the risk of diseases and contributes to a healthier and more resilient aquaculture system. This enhanced biosecurity is pivotal in mitigating the impact of disease outbreaks on aquaculture operations. Precision control over environmental factors within the RAS facilitates optimal growth conditions, resulting in higher production yields. Anderson and Smith (2023) delved into the advantages of this controlled environment, positioning the RAS as a key driver for meeting the growing global demand for sustainable seafood production.

1. Aquaculture and Shrimp farming

Considering the current population explosion and the speed of human-centered land encroachment, scientists have expressed concern about the availability and production of food to meet global demand. The agricultural sector alone would not be able to cope with such a huge global demand of 7.6 billion people, which does not seem to be decreasing in any way. Approximately 20% of the global population consumes fish, which originate in the aquaculture sector. On the other hand, it has grown many fold with advancements in science and technologies in fish production and post-harvest, which has become a prominent commercial sector. The fisheries sector is broadly classified into two types: marine and inland. In marine fisheries, fishermen venture into the sea to fish with their fishing vessels and gear to harvest fish, whereas in inland f isheries, fishermen go fishing in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. However, with advancements in technology and growing demand for fish as food sources, people have started growing fish in captivity under controlled and semi controlled conditions in ponds. The history of fish culture tracks back to 2000 BC, which originated in China, where they started growing carp in captivity by providing the required conditions for fish growth. Providing suitable conditions in captivity means providing the required physical and chemical environment in the culture system by keeping the physicochemical parameters at the optimum level as required by the species cultured. Physicochemical parameters of soil and water are key to the successful culture of fish, which is why emphasis has been placed on the scientific study of the physical and chemical parameters of soil and water.

1. Introduction

Bisphosphonates are frequently utilized in treating osteoporosis and cancer induced bone metastases, but they carry the risk of inducing a severe complication known as osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ). ONJ manifests as exposed bone in the craniofacial area and persists for over eight weeks in patients who are currently or previously treated with bisphosphonates. Many novel antiresorptive tyrosine kinases, mammalian targets of rapamycin, monoclonal antibodies, and immunosuppressant drugs have been discovered since BRONJ was first identified in 2003 and linked to ONJ (Akita et al., 2020). Current ideas include the prevention of angiogenesis and suppression of bone remodeling, gingival inflammation, gingival fibroblast dysfunction, and compromised immunological function. Wound healing mechanisms may play a role in most instances of ONJ, which occur after dental procedures, such as tooth extraction. In addition to surgical treatment for bone lesions, complementary therapies such as laser therapy, ozone therapy, and the administration of platelet concentrates in solid and liquid forms might help prevent ONJ and promote recovery (Gaurav Kumar et al., 2017; Hampton et al., 2015). Formation of new blood vessels is critical for the initiation and maintenance of wound healing.

1. Introduction

The increasing global population has intensified the challenges associated with land and freshwater scarcity (Dutta, 2019). The unpredictable supply of water bodies has prompted a significant shift among farmers towards the utilization of private tube wells, exerting increased pressure on groundwater resources (Ahmad et al., 2003; Ahmad et al., 2007). Due to inadequate water management practices and excessive extraction of groundwater, leading to a decline in water tables, irrigation is increasingly exerting a detrimental influence on the ecosystem (Pingali and Shah 2001; Qureshi et al., 2003). Therefore, agricultural technologies that contribute to water conservation, cost reduction, and increased productivity are gaining increasing importance (Gupta et al., 1997; Gupta et al., 2002).

Zero tillage fish farming, a groundbreaking approach in aquaculture, has emerged as a sustainable and efficient method for cultivating fish without disturbing the aquatic environment. Zero tillage fish farming is an innovative and sustainable aquaculture method that minimizes soil disturbance and preserves natural pond ecology (Hussan et al., 2019). In contrast to traditional practices involving pond bottom dredging, zero tillage maintains water quality, supports biodiversity, and enhances overall environmental sustainability (FAO AQUASTAT 2009). By avoiding disruptive practices, this approach promotes self-sustaining aquatic ecosystems, contributing to increased productivity, cost-effectiveness, and resilience in fish cultivation. Zero tillage fish farming represents a significant shift towards responsible and eco-friendly aquaculture, addressing challenges such as environmental degradation, food security, and the impact of climate change. This chapter explores the principles, benefits, and importance of zero-tillage fish farming, shedding light on its potential to transform the aquaculture industry.

1. Introduction

The current method of agricultural production is fish farming. A type of aquaculture known as "fish production" or "fish farming" entails the process of growing and producing a range of fish species. Proteins, vitamins (especially B2 and D), calcium, and other minerals are abundant in fish (Khalili, Tilami, and Sampels, 2018; Bostock et al., 2010). In the past, fish output was limited to freshwater fish capture. Fish farming, also known as pisciculture, is becoming a more common and commonly utilized technique for fish production. The aquaculture and fish farming industry is one of the fastest-growing food production sectors globally. The production rate of farmed fish has increased from less than one million metric tons, as reported in the 1950s to about 110.1 million metric tons in 2016, which is valued at over $243 billion. In the recent years, production of farmed finfish has reached 57.5 million tonnes (that is equivalent to 146.1 billion USD), including 49.1 million tonnes (109.8 billion USD) from inland aquaculture and 8.3 million tonnes (36.2 billion USD) from marine culture in the sea and coastal aquaculture on the shore (Rito and Viegas, 2020). Nowadays, the majority of the world’s population is reliant on the consumption of fish from aquaculture. Over the past few decades, finfish production through aquaculture and fish farming has increased remarkably, including both production and economic yield. Consequently, fish farming is becoming a major source of agricultural food in the present scenario.

1. Introduction

Aquatic algae is present in both contaminated and uncontaminated water sources. serve as essential bioindicators for evaluating water quality. Their sensitivity to pollutants and position in The significance of lower-level organisms in the food chain lies in their invaluable role in comprehending the effects of toxic substances on aquatic ecosystems. (Dwivedi & Pandey (2002). Pesticides, including herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides, play a crucial role in agriculture by utilizing forestry and animal husbandry to improve crop production. However, their indiscriminate use can lead to environmental contamination, which poses significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Pesticide contamination primarily results from surface runoff, emissions during spraying, improper transportation, inadequate spraying practices, and insufficient wastewater treatment from the pesticide industry. Introduction of pesticides into the environment Presents numerous environmental and health risks., inhibiting plant and animal growth and affecting the development and nervous systems of animals Pesticides have the potential to infiltrate the food chain, bioaccumulate in higher trophic levels, and reach the human body through biomagnification. Commonly used pesticides, such as imidacloprid, isoproturon, simazine, atrazine, mecoprop, and glyphosate, along with historical organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), contribute to significant pesticide contamination.

1. Introduction

Since the 1980s, the aquaculture industry has boomed due to growing market needs and limited natural harvesting options. To meet demand, high-density f ish farming methods have become popular, but overcrowding can stress fish, making them prone to diseases. The implications of diseases in aquaculture extend beyond mere mortality and morbidity, encompassing poor growth rates, inferior flesh quality, and diminished profit margins. Consequently, a critical imperative arises to implement preventive and therapeutic measures. Traditionally, chemotherapeutic agents, including antibiotics and disinfectants, have been employed for the treatment and prevention of various diseases in farmed fish. Nonetheless, their indiscriminate and continuous use raises concern, as it may foster the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, contribute to environmental pollution, and result in the presence of chemical residues in fish products. The existence of antimicrobial residues in food has garnered attention from the scientific community, given the associated risks to food safety and public health. These risks encompass not only antibiotic resistance (AMR) but also potential issues related to severe allergic reactions, carcinogenicity, renal dysfunction, mutagenicity, developmental toxicity, bone marrow depression, and disruption of the normal gut microbiota. Consequently, a reevaluation of preventive and therapeutic strategies in aquaculture is imperative to ensure sustainable practices without compromising human health (Bondad, Reantaso et al., 2023). The unregulated utilization of antimicrobial agents in aquaculture poses potential risks to human health. Consequently, several countries have implemented prohibitions on specific chemotherapeutics and are reluctant to import aquaculture products treated with antibiotics and chemicals. In response to these concerns, researchers have intensified their endeavors to explore natural alternatives for developing dietary supplements that can promote the growth performance, health, and immune system of cultured fish. In this context, the utilization of herbs emerges as a promising solution (Syahidah et al., 2015).

1. Introduction

Aquaculture is a thriving industry that contributes significantly to the economy by creating employment, sustenance, and nutrition owing to diverse resources and possibilities. Aquaculture is experiencing rapid growth as the swiftest food production sector is expanding, with an annual increase exceeding 8%. Fish production reached an estimated level of 16.25 million metric tons (MMT) (MPEDA). In the dynamic realm of aquaculture, the application of fish therapeutics is important for maintaining the health and productivity of fish populations. As the industry strives to meet the escalating global demand for seafood, understanding the nuances of fish therapeutics is crucial. This article explores the diverse techniques employed in fish health management, delving into their applications and advantages while simultaneously addressing the inherent limitations that pose challenges to sustainable aquaculture practices. Navigating through these complexities is essential to forge a path towards effective, ethical, and environmentally responsible fish therapeutics in the ever-evolving landscape of aquaculture.

1. Introduction

Aquaculture is described as an organized production of crops in an aquatic medium (FAO, 1987). Global aquaculture production has continued to expand at approximately 9% per year since the 1970s, with Asia dominating production levels, particularly for finfish (FAO, 2014). FAO data indicate that global fish production stands at 167 million tons (MT), of which 44% (73.8 MT) is contributed by the aquaculture sector (FAO, 2016). Twelve percent of the world's population depend on the fishing industry for their livelihood as and it provides 17 percent of animal protein. India is second only to China in terms of the world's output of culturable fisheries. According to reports, the aquaculture industry in India has suffered significant losses from the frequent incidence of infectious diseases of bacterial and viral origins, which has hindered sustainable development. To overcome the challenges of developing appropriate technologies for managing water quality in culture systems, developing quick diagnostic tools and ways to contain disease outbreaks, and providing disease-free or highly healthy broodstock and seeds, aquaculture requires creative biotechnological interventions “is the need of the hour” (Subasinghe et al., 2003).

1. Introduction

For millennia, civilizations worldwide have relied on medicinal plants for healthcare, with their usage documented as far back as ancient Sumeria. Today, traditional medicinal plants remain vital in many regions, especially in developing countries. Ethnobotanical studies have identified numerous bioactive plants, sparking extensive research into their biological activities and chemical compositions. Interest in medicinal plants has surged due to the drawbacks and costs of prescription drugs, leading to increased exploration of plant-based alternatives. Plants offer diverse chemical compositions with varied biological activities, making them suitable for treating complex diseases and posing little risk of antibiotic resistance development. Aquaculture, the fastest-growing sector in animal food production, faces challenges such as overcrowding and poor water quality, leading to disease outbreaks. While veterinary drugs are commonly used, their intensive use poses environmental and health risks, including antibiotic resistance and accumulation in animal tissues. Vaccines are effective but expensive and often limited in scope. Given the drawbacks of synthetic drugs, there's a growing need for alternative disease management strategies in aquaculture. Medicinal plants offer a promising solution, with reported bioactivities such as stress reduction, immune stimulation, and antiparasitic effects. By enhancing fish immunity and f itness, medicinal plants provide a cheaper and more sustainable alternative to chemotherapy in aquaculture (Cabello et al., 2006; Romero-Ormazabal et al., 2012).

1. Introduction

The aquaculture industry is a rapidly expanding domain of food production worldwide. With the exponential growth of the human population, there has been a corresponding rise in the demand for natural resources. Therefore, all technologies aim to maximize food production. The widespread expansion of aquaculture, especially in coastal areas, increases the load of biomass in the culture water and presents enduring ecological hazards. (Piedrahita 2003; Sharifinia et al., 2018, 2019).

The primary challenge confronted by aquaculturists as a result of rapid intensification of the system is the quality of water. Consequently, there has been a surge in eco-friendly management and cultivation practices. Additionally, the development of aquaculture is limited by high land costs and its heavy reliance on fish oil and fish meal (Browdy et al., 2001; De Schryver 2008). Nevertheless, the sector continues to exhibit limited productivity, which is primarily attributed to inadequate quality inputs and substandard culture technologies. With substantial operating and maintenance expenses, the acceptance of recirculating systems among farmers, specifically in developing nations, is limited. Hence, there is a growing requirement for an affordable, environmentally friendly technology that is embraced by farmers and can be widely implemented (Ahmad et al., 2017; Karimanzira et al., 2017). There is growing interest in enclosed aquaculture systems, primarily driven by the biosecurity, environmental, and marketing benefits they offer compared to traditional, semi-intensive, and extensive systems (Ray, 2012).