eChapters

Canals and waterways are the most important source for irrigation and have been identified as one of the most important aquatic resources for fish culture. The natural canal systems in the Sundarbans cover an area of 907.33 ha. Fisheries activities were planned in order to provide a source of livelihood to the underprivileged people of the cyclone-prone area of the Sundarbans.

Challenges and opportunities

Fisheries in the Sundarbans are poorly documented and less attention is given to producing fish from canals. Information on the trophic status of the canal habitat, biotic community structure, and hydrological parameters is also lacking. However, the villagers reported that the fish enter these canals from the source waters naturally, and form natural populations. The villagers residing beside the canal catch fish, especially during monsoon, and the women of the adjoining households often collect small indigenous fish (SIFs) or prawns through small dragnets or scoop nets for household consumption. The shared information of the villagers was utilised to sensitise them and convince them to initiate fish culture in these canals.

The village of Khan Saheber Abad is located in the Sagar subdivision of South 24 Parganas district in West Bengal, India. It is situated 4.8 km away from the sub-district headquarter Rudranagar (the tehsildar office) and 99.6 km away from the district headquarter Alipore. A training programme was conducted for the empowerment of rural tribal communities through sustainable inland fisheries development and utilisation of open water bodies in the village.

Challenges and opportunities

The Khan Saheber Abad is primarily a tribal dominated village. These Tribal people belong to the Santhal community. They have a low level of literacy, declining or stagnant population, and are economically weak, but they are very close to nature.

Health benefits of fish consumption

Fisheries and aquaculture play an important role in providing food and nutritional security. Fish is a rich source of quality animal proteins, omega- 3: poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), minerals, and vitamins. Fish is a superfood that is rich in all nutrients except carbohydrates, and its combination with rice or wheat makes it a complete food, forming a balanced diet with the right combination of macronutrients (quality proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) and micronutrients (minerals and vitamins), which are essential for good health.

Aquaculture is one of the fastest-growing food production sectors. India is bestowed with all types of aquatic habitats; freshwater, including the cold waters in the highlands, brackish waters, and the marine system. Being a tropical country, India is a biodiversity hotspot. It is rich in a wide variety of fish fauna, and wherever there is water, there are fish. Thus, fish is widely available in India, Thus, India is the third largest fish producing country and ranks second in aquaculture production. In comparison to other sources of animal proteins, fish is more chicken, mutton, beef, pork, etc., as affordable is available in wide varieties in the markets. Therefore, the common man can afford to consume fish regularly and provide his family with a balanced and healthy diet.

As a diet, fish is important for all age groups of humans. Fish oil, especially the omega-3 PUFAs, EPA, and DHA, keeps away several preventable human ailments (Table 1).

Packaging is an essential tool to make products stand out from the competition. Beyond the shelf appeal, packaging also provides protection to the contents from physical, chemical and microbiological hazards. However, a lesser known fact is that the same packaging material could also be a source of chemical contaminants, and hence, may impact food safety as well as food quality. Among the different components of packaging material, packaging inks play a critical role as they might hamper product and consumer safety.

Each packaging ink is a mixture of different chemicals and some of these chemicals might be harmful with the potential to migrate to the foodstuff. In terms of risk, the chemicals could be toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, repro-toxic and even endocrine disruptors. The chemical contaminants from the packaging inks can get transferred to the foodstuff by a process called migration.

Over the last two decades, a number of scientific papers have been published, revealing the migration potential of substances from the printed matter. However, the first big scandal that brought the subject alive was about the f indings of isopropyl thioxanthone (ITX, a low molecular photo initiator used in UV inks) in baby milk and other liquid foodstuffs all over Europe, resulting in a product recall in the year 2005. The food scandal alerted the packaging chain about the linkage between packaging inks and food safety. Consequently, the authorities issued strict regulations for the application of printing inks as well as general food control measures.

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding branch of science that has a critical role to play in raising the standard of living for people in the modern world. The global market for nanotechnology in food packaging is valued at 20 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow to 46.50 billion by 2031, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.32% from 2024 to 2031 (InsightAce Analytic, 2023). The rapid expansion of nanotechnology has paved the way for number of industrial areas, including food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural output (Mohammadi & Jafari, 2021). Nanotechnology is the fastest-growing field of science that significantly enhances the quality of life in today's world. This rapid advancement has opened up numerous industrial sectors, such as food processing, food contact materials, and agricultural production. A natural advancement is the integration of nanotechnology into food packaging. This includes enhanced packaging, active packaging, and a new category known as smart or intelligent packaging. Food contact materials, such as antimicrobial metals and oxides, biodegradable nanocomposites, and nanosensors, are utilized to create active and intelligent packaging. These materials enhance thermal and mechanical durability, increase safety and extend the shelf life of food, and facilitate the monitoring of packaged food (Kah et al., 2013). At the nanoscale, material properties change significantly, making it challenging to predict, identify, evaluate, and manage the health, safety, and environmental risks associated with nanomaterials. For example, nanoparticles (NPs) of 50 nm can enter cells, those of 70 nm can penetrate the lungs, and 30 nm NPs can cross blood-brain barriers.

Introduction

The landscape of the Indian food industry has undergone a dramatic transformation in recent years. Rising disposable incomes, coupled with the rapid pace of urbanization, have fuelled a surge in demand for convenient and processed food options. Consumers, increasingly pressed for time, are turning towards ready-to-eat meals, packaged snacks, and a wider variety of processed food products. While this trend signifies a growing economy and changing lifestyles, it has also brought to light a critical concern: ensuring food safety and empowering consumers with clear and accessible information. In order to empower consumers to make educated food choices and build trust between brands and consumers, food label transparency is crucial. Transparent labelling is essential for improving public health because it gives precise and unambiguous information about ingredients, nutritional value, and possible allergies. This information helps prevent diseases linked to a certain lifestyle, such diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. Additionally, it guarantees that customers are not misled about the quality or provenance of their food, shielding them from dishonest business tactics. Transparency also promotes market justice by levelling the playing field, making product integrity apparent, and fostering creativity and brand loyalty. Transparent labelling promotes ethical and sustainable consumption while also facilitating international trade by adhering to regulatory norms in many countries.

Recognizing this need for a more transparent and consumer-centric food ecosystem, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) introduced the FSS Labelling and Display (L & D) Regulations in 2020 under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act). This landmark legislation marked a significant shift in the way food is labelled and marketed in India. By establishing stricter regulations and mandating the inclusion of comprehensive information on food packaging, the FSSAI aimed to empower consumers to make informed choices while also promoting fair competition within the food industry. This comprehensive review delves into the intricacies of the FSS Labelling and Display Regulations 2020. It explores the key provisions of the regulations, analyzes their impact on various stakeholders, and examines the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation. By providing an in-depth analysis, this chapter aims to shed light on the significance of these regulations in shaping a more responsible and transparent food industry landscape in India.

Introduction

Food packaging materials development has been driven by the need to protect food products throughout distribution and storage. Nanotechnology offers opportunities to improve technical packaging features and develop sustainable smart packaging and sensors for monitoring product quality over time. However, the inherent permeability of conventional packaging materials to atmospheric gases and water vapour poses challenges in maintaining optimal conditions for food. The integration of nanotechnology into food packaging has emerged as a promising solution to address these challenges. Nanocomposite materials, composed of a polymer matrix and nanoscale fillers, offer a novel approach to enhancing packaging performance while addressing issues related to food spoilage, degradation, and safety.

Nanocomposite materials encompass a range of nanomaterials, including inorganic (i.e., metals and metal oxides), nanoclay, organic nanomaterials, and nanoemulsions (Huang et al., 2018; Jamaleddin et al., 2019; P. Kumar et al., 2020). NMs are used for three types of packaging: improved packaging, active packaging and intelligent packaging, Nanotechnology facilitates the development of improved bio-based packaging, enhancing mechanical strength and barrier performance while maintaining stability under varying environmental conditions (S. Kumar et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Active packaging harnesses nanostructures to encapsulate bioactive compounds, encompassing antimicrobials, antioxidants, and oxygen scavengers, which can interact with food and extend its shelf life (Motelica et al., 2020). Intelligent packaging releases active compounds in response to environmental triggers such as temperature or pH changes, transforming packaging into an intelligent, actively responsive material (Jamróz et al., 2019).

Introduction

A biopolymer is defined as a polymeric substance obtained from any living organism (plant or animal) [1]. These polymers are organic compounds where simpler molecules are covalently bonded with each other [2]. Although biopolymers are strictly synthesized naturally by living cells but some of them are also synthesized from non-biomaterial as well. Natural biopolymers are of different types based on their chemical nature like carbohydrate based, protein based or lipid based. Biopolymers can be broken down by the action of naturally-occurring organisms which leaves organic non-harming by-products like water and carbon dioxide in the environment[3].

Bio polymers are gaining importance in the field of food packaging, medical application, commodity packaging etc. because of their have specific physical, chemical, biological, biomechanical and degradation properties. Wide ranges of natural or synthetic biopolymers capable of undergoing degradation hydrolytically or enzymatically are being investigated for many applications[1]. Bio polymers are mainly based on two properties: a) Biological origin b) Biodegradability.

Earlier natural biopolymers such as cellulose, protein, starch have been used extensively for food applications. Recently, synthetic biopolymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), and polybutylene succinate (PBS) are gaining more attention[4] for various applications. Natural biopolymers are more stereospecific and mostly hydrophilic having complex 3D structures as compared to the synthetic polymers[2]. Among the synthetic biopolymers some are microbiologically degradable in the environment whereas some are recyclable[1].

Introduction

The purpose of this e-book is to outline the main hazards in food production and processing that could influence the safety of foods and thus the health and wellbeing of consumers. The suggestive actions to restrain the formation of compounds or organisms that may threaten the safety of a food will be discussed along with the legal and regulatory framework.

“Safe Food Now for a Healthy Tomorrow”

Food is the third most basic human need, after air and water. Only when food is safe can it contribute to our food security and health. When food is not safe, people cannot thrive, hunger and poverty cannot be alleviated, and a healthy life is not possible. Food safety has a significant impact on human health, and food, which is essential for human survival, comes from plants and animals. Food safety is a core tenet of One Health.

This chapter gives an overview of the main hazards such as physical hazards, chemical hazards, biological hazards, and adulterants in different types of foods and how the hazards influence the safety of the food along with health and well-being of the consumers. The effective way of management of these hazards and different hazard limits set by the regulators such as FSSAI, USFDA, EU AND CODEX along with labelling requirements for the hazards has been discussed in this chapter.

Introduction

Packaging is an integral and pervasive part of contemporary world. Packaging makes material handling convenient, economical and effortless and modern consumer marketing will seem virtually impossible without packaging. For an engineer or food scientist, packaging is specialized arrangement of matrices fabricated for the delivery of safe food products with maintaining high quality and food safety, at every step of distribution chain including procurement of raw material to manufacturing of finished product; packaging of product; storage; transportation and distribution to wholesaler, retailer and consumer and even for recycling operations [17].

Packaging of food is imperative in a world dominated by marketing-based economy The fact that 73% of purchase decisions are made at point of sale highlighted the importance of a good package design in marketing. During scanning of food package, consumer made quick and rapid perception about the inclusion of a particular food based on the various verbal and nonverbal attributes embodied on food package [25]. Designing is an indispensable are of food packaging. It is medium to attract potential buyers and distinguished the product from the competitors. The presence of visual attributes on package design will not only ameliorates the food product and glamorizes the packets but also defines its authenticity and peculiarity. Therefore, a quality package design is characterized as communication channel between the manufacture and consumer, and unless performed correctly the market image of the brand and product suffers and influence consumer’s perception.

Food Contact Materials (FCM)

Before food consumption, during production, processing, preparation, packaging, packing, transportation, storage, serving etc. food comes in contact o many materials, all these materials are called food contact materials (FCM). FCM may be containers used for transportation for example milk container, machineries for its production or processing, packaging materials for its packaging like cans of soft drinks, kitchenware used for its cooking, serving, heating, washing. The selection of FCM requires intense care because FCM can affect human health and also the quality of food. During contact with food, molecules can migrate from FCM to food. Hence, FCM should have the following common attributes:

1. FCM should be compatible with the materials used for production, processing, transport, storage, serving etc.

2. FCM should be inert and non-reactive.

3. FCM should withstand the chemical, Mechanical and Thermal variations.

4. FCM should be clean, hygienic and tamper proof.

5. FCM should not have blisters, cracks, sharp edges and visible defects. 6. FCM should be free from rust.

Introduction

Packaging of food material is an essential component of food industry since packaging provides protection, physical tampering resistance and unique appearance to the food products which attracts the customers (Robertson, 2006). The handling of food products would be inefficient and costly if they are not packed properly (Robertson, 2006). The style and design of packaging influence their sale as well as demand. The main aim of packaging is to corroborate the safety and quality of food by preventing microbial contamination (Lee K.M, 2010). Plastics, papers, glass and metals are the common materials used for packaging of food products (Arvanitoyannis and Bosnea, 2004). Among these plastics are most commonly used packaging material because of their low cost, light weight, design freedom and high durability (British Plastic Federation). Various additives are added to the plastics to achieve desired physical and chemical properties. These additives are stabilizers, plasticisers, lubricants and f lame retardants. These additives have potential to transfer from the packaging materials to the food stuffs(K Bunia et al., 2013).

The efficient food packaging solutions are the need of the hour for the Earth. The food losses including the production, post harvest, processing stages of the supply chain and food wastage includes loss of edible food occurring at the f inal stages of food chain that is during retail supply or ultimate consumption. The food born illnesses cannot be ignored which are a consequence of the contamination of food by bacteria, viruses, parasites, new chemical entities or toxicants. We need to optimise the food supply chain, increase food shelf life and consciousness amidst food producers to food consumers. The active and intelligent packaging may help the globe through sufficient food for the increasing population. Scavengers/ absorbers are important solutions which may absorb substances from the packaging inner atmosphere (ethylene absorbers, oxygen scavengers; emitters and antioxidants).

Introduction

Food packaging is one of the most dynamic and fast-growing industries in the current scenario of increasing industrialization. With the constant upsurge in the food wastage at different stages of processing (suchas harvest, storage, processing, transportation, and distribution) leads to more than 15% of food produced ending up in the dumping grounds due to food spoilage caused by climatic conditions andmicroorganisms.Ever-increasing demands of consumers for convenient food makes packaging technology a need of the hour in order to keep the food safe, wholesome and of high quality at the same time.

So appropriate packaging has the potential of not only preventing spoilage but also taking care of healthand well-being of the individuals.Therefore, packaging plays the most important role in the overall safety of the food product.This makes packaging as the ever-evolving field since new requirements need new materials which demands new approaches and technology for better quality products.

By definition, Food packaging is a well-organized system of protecting the food product from any kind of physical, chemical, and biological damage in order to ensure that food reaches the consumer in its most safe condition at minimum applicable cost. It is bridge between production and consumption (Paine, 1992).

Sprinkler irrigation is an advanced method of irrigation in which water is sprayed to air and allowed to fall on the ground similar to rainfall. The spraying of water occurs through nozzle connected to a network of pipes with water under pressure. The rate of application and area of coverage under a sprinkler is regulated by suitable selection of nozzle size and pressure in the system.

History of Sprinkler Irrigation

The sprinkler irrigation has started elsewhere in the world in the early part of twentieth century. Before 1920, sprinkler irrigation was limited to orchard, nurseries and intensive vegetable cultivation. The cost of sprinkler reduced considerably by the development of impact sprinkler and lightweight steel pipe with quick couplers in the 1930s. As a result, sprinkler irrigation began to spread in larger area and to the area of field crops. However, sprinkler irrigation developed mainly after the Second World War with the introduction of lightweight portable aluminum pipe.

Sprinkler irrigation has started in India from mid of 1950s. Due to requirement of high initial investment, the average Indian farmers cannot afford the system and therefore the area under sprinkler irrigation in India was 0.66mha (approx.) out of total irrigated area of 87.80mHa in 1995 (INCID). The sprinkler irrigation was first introduced in India in hilly regions such as Western Ghats in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and in the North Eastern States especially by plantation owners for irrigating tea, coffee and cardamom crops. Since the cost of aluminum pipe is high, to replace it, High Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE)/PVC with suitable modification have been introduced in sprinkler system. However, the area under HDPE/PVC piping system is below 20% to the total area under sprinkler irrigation. The remaining area is cultivated under aluminum or steel based sets. The indigenous manufacturing of the system has started in India only 35-40 years ago and there are about fifty numbers of manufacturers till 1996 (INCID). The details of the cultivated area under sprinkler irrigation system in the world and in Indian States are given in Table 8.1 & 8.2 respectively.

Drip system has great promise for efficient utilization of available irrigation water. In our country and elsewhere in the world the scientists are unanimously agreed to adopt drip irrigation method for higher application efficiency and thereby better use of scarce irrigation water. Saksena (1993) reported water losses of only 1-2% in drip irrigation in comparison to 6-9% in sprinkler and 30-35% in surface irrigation method. However, very small area compared to other methods of irrigation so far is irrigated by drip system in our country. Up to 2000 the total area under drip irrigation was 2,59,600 ha in India (Alam & Kumar, 2000). Initial high investment for drip network and pumping system, of course, are discouraging to the most of our farmers. Sharma & Abrol (1993) mentioned that in spite of the very encouraging results and attractive subsidies offered by the Govt. of India, the adoption of the drip irrigation system has not picked up to the expected level. Along with the other reasons they pointed out the high initial cost of the system and lack of research effort on developing cost-effective design suited to local condition are responsible for non-practice of drip irrigation at a considerable scale.

Some research works has been conducted to find out low cost method of drip irrigation. Biswas (1998) developed a manually operated drip irrigation system made of bamboo mains, laterals and sub-laterals. The system and its performance are described below.

Drip Network

The main and laterals of the drip network were made of hollow bamboo pieces each of 3m lengths with 7.5cm and 4.0cm diameter respectively. The sub lateral or the emitters were the bamboo twigs of 0.25cm inside diameter and 1.05-1.10m length to suit the spacing between the plant rows. The mains and laterals were made for the required length in the field by jointing together the sections one after another (Fig. 7.1). The ends of two sections, which contact each other, were made such that one section easily gets inside the other for about 10-15cm.

Introduction

Fertilization is the application of fertilizer for the benefit of the crops. It may be traditional broadcasting or fertigation. In broadcasting method the fertilizer is applied in concentrated granular form. The size of the granules ranges from granular dust to pellet size. These solid fertilizers get dissolved by the rain or irrigated water to leach down the plat root zone. This method results uneven nutrient delivery due to uneven dissolving the fertilizer granules. It may cause burning of plant leaves and root system due to uneven and uncontrolled release of nutrients. Dry fertilizers can volatilize and release gases which may damage or burn the nearby foliage. Availability of fertilizer to the plant root zone largely depends on the temperature and availability of water to dissolve the fertilizers.

In fertigation liquid or water-soluble fertilizer, soil amendments or other products required by the plants is either sprayed on to the plant material or applied to the plant bottom with irrigation water. Foliar application provides high rate of absorption of fertilizer through the leaf/stalk/branch structures of plants. Ground application also provides good consistency in making its way to root zone and plant absorption. Thus, the fertigation provides benefit of increased nutrient absorption; decrease water needs, and reduce the fertilizer and chemical use (Anonyms, 2005).

Introduction

There is different type of distributors available in the market. Depending on the basic principle of working they may be broadly classified into three major groups as below (FAO, 1980).

i. Distributors in which head loss takes place through small diameter tubes

ii. Distributors in which head loss takes place through some orifice control

iii. Distributors in which head loss takes place through a vortex action

There are many adaptations to distributors though the working distributors fall under the above stated basic principle. Tiny perforation in the laterals or porous materials allows leaking out the water serves the purpose of distributors. The compensating type distributors have long path in it to dissipate the energy and drips almost same rate within certain range of pressure variation. Whatever may be the distributors proposed to be used, the discharge characteristics should be known. The discharge characteristics should be provided by the manufacturers and preferably certified by any authorized body; otherwise to be tested by the designer before recommendation to large-scale use.

The pipe network in a drip system consists of a mainline, sub mains, laterals, and distributors. The layout of the pipes depends on the physical factors like shape and size of the area, topography and any other obstacles in the field. In any field there may be the scope of different layout of the pipes. The most economic one should be selected. In general, contour line is followed in laying the laterals in sloping land, sub main length usually be shorten in uphill and equally spaced laterals on either side of a sub main in a flat land provides good layout.

Hydraulic Formulae /Head Losses in Pipes

There are numerous equations for solving the head loss in pipes. The most commonly used are the Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen-William and Scobey’s.

Crop Water Requirements

In designing an irrigation system, the primary objective is to know the water requirement of crops. Water requirement of crops are determined either by f ield cultivation or by estimation through commonly used empirical formulae such as Blaney Criddle, radiation, Penman or pan evaporation method.

Definitions

Crop water requirement or evapotranspiration (ETcrop ): It may be defined as the rate of evapotranspiration of a disease free crop growing in a field of not less than one hectare under adequate fertility and water supply so that full productive potential can be achieved in prevailing environment. Evapotranspiration requirement of a crop refers the ETcrop and expressed in mm/day.

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ET0 ): It is the rate of evapotranspiration from an extended surface of 8 to 15cm tall green grass of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water. ET0 may be computed by using the empirical formulae and meteorological data for the specific period.

In drip irrigation water is distributed throughout the field from a system of pressurized pipelines. The pressure must be sufficient to overcome the frictional losses and elevation differences. The system also deserves discharge from all the emitters and the emitters must dissipate the pressure difference between the inlet to emitters and atmospheric pressure.

The flow through the drip pipes may be laminar or turbulent or a combination of both. The laminar flow is characterized by the layers of cylindrical tubes of which the maximum velocity is at the center about double of the average velocity. The turbulent flows having pulsatory cross current velocities and maximum velocity is about only 1.25 time of the average velocity. Turbulent f lows loss more energy than laminar flow due to development of the cross current velocity.

Reynolds Number

The criterion for distinguishing the flow from laminar to turbulent was developed by Osborne Reynolds (1842-1900) and was named as Reynolds number; Re . The Reynolds number in circular pipes flowing full is expressed as