eChapters

Precision farming manages spatial and temporal variability within fields through targeted, data-driven interventions. Onion is particularly suited to precision management because its productivity and quality are sensitive to moisture, nutrients, environmental stress, pests and diseases. This chapter describes applications of GIS, GPS, variable-rate technology, IoT, cloud platforms, drones, remote sensing, multispectral imaging, smart sensors, artificial intelligence, automated systems and crop-response models. These technologies support soil assessment, field preparation, irrigation, fertilization, crop monitoring, stress detection, protection, yield estimation, harvesting and storage. Their potential to reduce input waste and improve profitability is considered alongside constraints involving investment costs, technical knowledge, connectivity, accessibility and data privacy.

Food processing is a fundamental component of the food industry that transforms raw materials of plant and animal origin into safe, nutritious, convenient and value-added products. This chapter introduces the basic concepts and evolution of food processing, tracing its development from traditional practices to modern technologies driven by consumer demand. It explains the major purposes of processing, including shelf-life extension, food variety, safety and preservation of nutritive value. The chapter also examines primary, secondary and tertiary processing and discusses the effects of processing on macronutrients and micronutrients. Understanding these fundamentals provides a foundation for evaluating conventional and emerging food-processing technologies.

Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) is an advanced extraction technology that provides an efficient and comparatively sustainable alternative to conventional solvent-based extraction. This chapter introduces the fundamental principles of supercritical fluids and explains the mechanism by which desirable compounds can be selectively extracted from food materials. It examines the use of SFE for recovering aroma compounds, essential oils, flavours, pigments, colours, antimicrobial compounds and valuable bioactive substances. Particular emphasis is placed on obtaining high-purity extracts while minimizing toxic solvent residues. The chapter also discusses industrial food applications, process advantages and limitations, highlighting the potential of SFE for developing cleaner, efficient and value-oriented food-processing and ingredient-recovery systems.

Low-temperature preservation is one of the most widely used physical approaches for extending food shelf life without seriously affecting quality. Reducing storage temperature slows microbial multiplication, enzyme activity and chemical deterioration, with inhibition increasing as temperature declines. Refrigeration maintains food above its freezing point, while freezing reduces temperature below zero and converts available water into ice. The chapter examines conventional refrigeration, advanced chilling, freezing, cryopreservation, superchilling and the influence of ice crystallisation on food quality. It explains how temperature, cooling rate and crystal size affect texture, nutritional retention and storage stability, while also addressing the limitations and quality changes associated with prolonged low-temperature storage.

Thermal preservation is among the most established methods for improving the safety and storage life of food. It uses controlled heating to destroy spoilage organisms and pathogens and to inactivate undesirable enzymes. Processing intensity varies according to the target microorganisms, food composition, packaging and required shelf life. Pasteurisation reduces pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms without achieving complete sterility, while sterilisation destroys more heat-resistant organisms and spores to produce commercially stable foods. Ultra-high-temperature processing combines very high temperatures with extremely short treatment periods. This chapter also discusses retort processing, thermal-death kinetics and microbial-inactivation models used to design safe processes while minimising nutritional and sensory damage.

The increasing use of genomics, phenotyping, remote sensing, sensors and digital agricultural technologies has generated large and complex datasets in plant science. This chapter examines the role of big data analytics in managing and interpreting these datasets for agricultural research and decision-making. It discusses applications of big data in plant science and the technological infrastructure required for data storage, processing and analysis. Cloud computing, next-generation sequencing and high-performance computing are highlighted as important technologies supporting large-scale biological and agricultural data analysis. The chapter also considers the benefits and challenges of big data, including computational requirements, data management, integration and interpretation, before outlining future opportunities for data-driven plant science.

Plant phenotyping is essential for understanding plant growth, development, morphology, physiology and responses to environmental conditions. This chapter examines how artificial intelligence is transforming conventional phenotyping through automation, high-throughput data collection and advanced analysis. It covers image-based, UAV-based and sensor-based phenotyping, together with genotype-to-phenotype modelling and machine learning and deep learning methods. Imaging systems, spectral sensing, drones, sensors and robotic platforms provide diverse sources of plant information for AI analysis. Applications include trait measurement, disease and stress detection, crop performance prediction and resource management. The chapter also discusses limitations, emerging technologies, digital twins, IoT, cloud computing and future opportunities for scalable and sustainable phenotyping.

Efficient irrigation is essential for maintaining crop productivity while conserving increasingly limited water resources. This chapter explores the application of artificial intelligence to smart irrigation systems and irrigation scheduling. It considers water balance and evapotranspiration modelling and examines AI architectures used for irrigation decision-making. Sensor technologies and Internet of Things integration provide continuous information about soil, weather and crop conditions. Optimization algorithms can use these data to determine appropriate irrigation schedules and improve water-use efficiency. The chapter also discusses emerging AI-based irrigation approaches and global case studies. Challenges associated with implementation, data requirements, system limitations and ethical considerations are examined, followed by future directions for intelligent and sustainable irrigation management.

Graphene and related carbon nanomaterials have attracted considerable attention as reinforcements for high-performance green composites. This chapter examines graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, and graphene nanoplatelets and their integration with bio-based polymers and natural fibres. It discusses synthesis and fabrication methods, characterization techniques, mechanical properties, electrical and thermal performance, barrier properties, and applications. The chapter also considers dispersion and compatibility challenges associated with incorporating nanomaterials into green matrices. Graphene-based composites are explored for energy storage, environmental treatment, biomedical applications, sensors, packaging, automotive, and aerospace uses. Emerging trends focus on multifunctionality, scalable production, cost reduction, and sustainable processing.

Additive manufacturing is increasingly important for developing resource-efficient and customized products while reducing material waste associated with conventional manufacturing. This chapter examines the role of additive manufacturing in supporting green and sustainable production systems. It covers environmental benefits, economic and operational advantages, additive manufacturing technologies, sustainable applications, life-cycle assessment, environmental impact analysis, challenges, and design strategies. Industry trends, case studies, sustainability standards, and future research directions are also considered. In the context of green composites, additive manufacturing can support flexible fabrication and potentially improve material utilization and product customization. The chapter emphasizes the need to evaluate manufacturing technologies across their complete environmental and economic life cycle.

Stock, primarily represented by Matthiola species, is an important cool-season cut flower valued for attractive colours and fragrance. This chapter covers its origin, taxonomy, botanical description, genetics and commercially important series and cultivars. It explains climate, soil, propagation, nursery raising, planting, spacing, irrigation, nutrition and greenhouse production. Special attention is given to maintaining strong stems and quality flowers, as well as avoiding excessive nitrogen that can result in weak growth. Harvesting, postharvest management, ethylene control, vase-life extension and yield are discussed. The chapter provides practical information for producing commercially valuable stock flowers for domestic and specialized markets.

Climate, in general, is the totality of weather during a longer period and over wider area. Agro climate can be defined as the conditions and effects of varying weather parameters like solar radiation, rainfall etc., on crop growth and production.

Climatic classification is a method of arranging various data of climatic parameters to demarcate a country or region into homogenous zones i.e., places having similar conditions.

The earth has two motions. (1) Rotation and (2) Revolution. The earth rotates about its axis (west to eastward) with a speed of 464 m/s or 1669 km/hr. Its angular speed of rotation is about 7.29 x 10^-5 radians/sec or 0.26244 radians per hour. This rotation causes day and night and diurnal variations of weather.

The rotating earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit (with the sun at one of its Foci) with a speed (orbital speed) of about 1.073 x 10⁵ km/hr or 29770 m/s or 29.8 km/s. This revolution causes seasons. It has been stated earlier that the apparent path of the sun with respect to the celestial sphere is called ecliptic.

Abstract

The Directorate of Sorghum Research has explored 9 states for sorghum germplasm during 2000 – 2011. The sorghum landrace collections are mostly named with the village name prefixed to the landrace (ex. tongraligaon maldandi, sultanpur maldandi etc), landraces are also named based on the grain colour (ex. tella jonna, bili jola etc.) and size (ex. moti rabi jowar), ear head compactness (ex. mudda jola), use of the stem, ear head or grain (ex. dagdi, gundu, allur, broom etc.) for varieties utilities. The landraces are being grown by farmers over the years for many reasons. The moli jowar grains are attractive and fetch higher price in the market compared to other released varieties in Madhya Pradesh. Some are used for specific food preparations. The irungu cholam flour is boiled with water to prepare food. The mathappu cholam is used to prepare a jelly like food known as khali in Tamil Nadu. The beed maldandi and bidri from Maharashtra are used to make quality jowar roti. Karnataka’s kodumurugu jola and allina jola are used to make laddu’s and pappads respectively. Broomcorn jowar from Uttarakhand are used for roti, cattle and poultry feed making. The allur jola from Karnataka is used to prepare allu dish during the nagapanchami (festival of snake god). The pachcha jonna from Andhra Pradesh, barmuda local, deshi chari and gudli local from Rajasthan and bendri dagdi and khondya from Maharashtra are very good fodder types. Valsangh maldandi local, Vadgaon dagdi maldandi, tongraligaon maldandi, tongraligaon dagdi, sultanpur local dagdi, sultanpur maldandi, harni jogdi (dagdi), harni jogdi, chungi maldandi, musti local (Maldandi), chungi kuch-kachi, baddi jowar, chakur maldandi from Maharashtra, and sai jonna from Andhra Pradesh are considered by the farmers as drought tolerant landraces. In Andhra Pradesh, Koya’s (tribe) grow konda jonna. Lambada’s used to grow the maghi sorghum landraces extensively in the state. The tribal community mainly uses the accessions as food and some are used for both food & fodder. The accessions collected from the higher elevation and remote forest area is source material for pest & disease resistance. The accession IC 347574 is used as the tribal food. The accession IC 347583 is a guinea race and IC 347585 is a durra-guinea race sorghum collected at an elevation of 500 feet from the tribal village. In Gujarat,Gomati (tribe) grow deshi jonna landraces. In Madhya Pradesh, Rewa district is the maximum deshi jowar cultivation region. This area is commonly called “Junariwala Shetra”. Mehran, Swarguor, and Kushwaha are the main tribes cultivating the jowar in these regions. In Maharashtra, Korukoo’s tribe grows somgi and deshi jonna landraces. They cultivate sorghum with lablab, chillies, cotton, redgram, and tomato at the height of 650 – 870 m from MSL. Maximum diversity of the sorghum still exists in the disturbed forests. Due to extend of its natural variability, India exists as the secondary origin of sorghum.

Abstract

Determining the optimum stocking rate for a grazing land is a key decision affecting the profitability and viability of a grazing system. Forage intake and subsequent performance is dependent on forage availability to the livestock on a daily basis.
Fixing stocking rate too low results in wastage of forage and loss in profit and too high results in lowered forage intake and livestock output thus results in diminished profits. Overgrazing occurs when the grazing pres-sure exceeds the carrying capacity of the land and would modify the physical properties of soil and ecosystem. Due to the overuse of the grazing land, vegetation cover declines and thus reduces the soil organic matter content and soil infiltration capacity. On farm field experiments were conducted in three farmer’s fields at dryland tracts of Tirupur district for a period of two years from September, 2009 to March, 2011 with the objective to assess the carrying capacity of silvipastoral farming system. Treatments were five silvipastoral systems viz.,Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus ciliaris, Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus ciliaris + Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia leucophloea + fodder sorghum + Pillipesara and Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata & fodder sorghum + Pillipesara. One unit of Mecheri sheep of five ewes (female) and one ram (male) and two buffaloes were maintained in each location. Observations on carrying capacity, annual forage yield, utilization rate, average daily intake and average fodder requirement of sheep and Length of grazing season were made. The experimental results revealed that, among the different silvipastoral systems, rotational grazing of 39 numbers of sheep per ha of silvipasture land with Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata & fodder sorghum + Pillipesara system is found to be the best. This would imply relatively less pressure on land that would indicate sustaining the carrying capacity of grazing land without exerting pressure on natural resources.

Abstract

Irrigation tanks (Traditional water harvesting structures) are our heritage handed over to us by our ancestors and are the lifelines of villages. Tanks are small irrigation structures predominantly serve small and marginal farming communities to sustain the agriculture production by supplementing the monsoon rains. There will be festivities in the villages if its irrigation tanks get filled. A proper maintenance of the tanks will prevent famine, starvation and unemployment and bring in prosperity. In most of the Southern states in India, the major threats to tanks are mainly from the encroachers, inefficiency in the functioning of tank system and improper use by the government itself. Tank irrigation in Andhra Pradesh has played a vital role in the development of its agricultural economy. There are around 79,000 small and minor irrigation tanks providing water for irrigation and domestic use, supporting grazing land, fuel wood growth and ground water recharge. Many of these tanks are hydrologically linked in chains (called tank cascades) that cut across administrative boundaries. With deteriorating tank systems, marginal and small farmers are increasingly at the mercy of monsoon and are forced into a cycle of deprivation and debt. These ancient irrigation systems still function as a crucial element in supplying water for agriculture, and they constitute one of the richest sources of wetland biodiversity in the country. A tank system in a cascade has a small reservoir catchment, the reservoir, a strip of trees downstream of the reservoir that act as wind-breaking barrier, paddy fields, and the village. The village tanks play significant role in food production sector and provide employment in the rural sector. In addition to providing irrigation water, the tanks made the micro-climate pleasant and cool, provided a rich biodiversity and agro-biodiversity

Abstract

The best way to conserve the biological diversity is by involving the local community. It is popularly known as community-based biodiversity conservation (CBC). The conflict between the nature and local communities who have stakes and rights in their territory is a matter of great concern. Likewise, when there prevails the community diversity, what would be the role, participation, share, stake, management issues, equity parameters etc. are the factors that affect CBC. However, CBC is future of conservation of natural resources. It needs adequate focus of community-scale projects on biodiversity conservation implemented by different parties and NGOs. Similarly, empowering community people through adequate financial support and appropriate monitoring and evaluation are the key success factors of community conservation projects. Ethnicity, gender and wealth were the factors that predicted CBC. Hence, the CBC programmes must address these aspects with adequate emphasize. The conflict between human activity and biodiversity conservation, if handled very effectively, will be a productive strategy to highlight pragmatic problems that arise at the field level and creating equitable and sustainable solutions. The general threats as a result of conflict between human activity and biodiversity conservation are agricultural intensification, recreation and human activities and policy related threats. Hence, awareness creation must have an integrative and interdisciplinary approach including the bodies that administer social and natural movements as well as the interests and priorities of local communities. Governing biodiversity conservation measures through political processes by engaging the appropriate representatives has valid implications for the whole process of biodiversity conservation. Alienation of local community, lack of favorable legal framework and lack of addressing the conservation issues through political process may adversely affect the biodiversity conservation as a whole.

Introduction

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most widely cultivated and consumed crops in the world. Wheat is perhaps best known for its different end-use baking properties as determined by grain texture, protein content and quality. Wheat is generally traded by and classified into “hard” and “soft” market classes on the basis of grain hardness or texture of the wheat kernel (caryopsis). Soft wheats have softer endosperm texture that fractures easily, therefore requiring less energy to mill, yields smaller particles, and has less starch damage after milling when compared to hard wheats. Hard and soft are used with slightly different connotations in different parts of the world. In Western Europe, hard is applied primarily to durum wheats and the soft applied to bread wheat. Elsewhere the term is applied to different cultivars within the species Triticum aestivum. In general, hard wheats are used for bread baking, while soft wheats are used for cookies and cake making. Hard wheat requires more force to crack the kernel, maintains a larger particle size, passes through sieves more easily and has more damaged starch MacRitchie (1980). Higher starch damage is required for good bread making quality Tipples et al. (1994) but is detrimental to the biscuit making quality.

INTRODUCTION

Nearly 60% of the population of the country is dependent on agriculture. Rainfed agriculture supports 40% of the population and 75% of the poorest of the poor in the country (Pant 2001). Therefore, maintenance of health of production base stands as a prime goal to be achieved for sustainable production, prosperity and posterity. Tree culture is highly necessitated for amelioration of climate, soil, production of firewood, fodder, timber, fibre, fruit, gum etc. Hence, agroforestry is a viable option particularly in the Indian context.

INTRODUCTION

Soil is known to harbour an array of micro-organisms. The soil micro-organisms play vital roles in the half-hidden portion of the plant i.e., the rhizosphere, where they are invariably present and are stimulated by organic substrates supplied by the plant. These are known to form the mutualistic, symbiosis with photosynthetic plants and play a key role in increasing availability of plant nutrients, the improvement of their uptake, the production of plant growth regulators, plant protection against root pathogens etc. in both natural and man-modified eco-systems.

Abstract

Manipulation of a large number of genes is often required for the improvement of even the simplest character. Molecular marker trace valuable alleles in a segregating population and mapping them. Genome mapping has emerged as a powerful new approach for research in botany, agriculture and other related fields. Genome mapping methods help to locate specific DNA markers to delineate when one has reached particular gene of interest and forming a molecular map. DNA mapping encompasses a wide range of techniques useful for studying DNA at different levels of magnification. Genetic Linkage Mapping Using Molecular Markers, Development of Genetic Maps, Mapping populations and comparative genomics are elucidated.

Introduction

Understanding biology and genetics at molecular level has become very important for better understanding and manipulation of genome architecture. Molecular markers have contributed significantly in this respect and have been widely used in plant science in a number of ways including genetic fingerprinting, identification of duplicates and selecting core collections, determination of genetic distances, genome analysis, identification of markers associated with desirable breeding traits which are useful in marker assisted breeding, genomics and development of transgenics. Use of these markers also significantly reduce breeding time and cycles required for crop improvement. Molecular level understanding of the inheritance of agriculturally important traits creates new opportunities to streamline plant breeding.

The application of machines to agricultural production has been one of the outstanding developments in world agriculture during last fifty years. The results of this development can be seen in many aspects such as reduction in burden and drudgery of farm work and worker, increase in production per worker, increase in cropping intensity due to timeliness of operations, reduction in grain losses and increase in farm employment. Mechanization is particularly advantageous when it can minimize a high peak labour demand that occurs over a relatively short period of time each year. For example, sowing of wheat and harvesting of paddy in the months of October and November, transplanting of paddy in the month of June and harvesting of wheat in the months of April and May. Severe labour shortages and high rate of wages during peak period, together with simultaneous demands for increased agricultural production had a marked influence on the mechanization of certain farm operations such as seedbed preparation, sowing/planting/transplanting, harvesting and threshing. Mechanization encourages better management of farms, improvement in working conditions and performance of jobs that would otherwise be difficult by hand. It also helps in reducing the cost of production.

Introduction

Modern intensive livestock and poultry production has achieved phenomenal gains in the efficient and economical production of high quality and safe animal products and by-products. Furthermore, the overall performance of livestock can be increased by improving nutrients utilization, health status, fertility and efficiency of production. The use of feed additives has been an important part of achieving efficient livestock production. Feed additives are non-nutritive substances, preparations and micro-organisms that are added to animal feed to improve productive, reproductive and health performances. Any substance is considered as a feed additive when, not having a direct utilization as nutrient, is included at an optimum concentration in diet to exert a positive action over the animal health status or the dietary nutrient utilization. Hutjens (1991) defined feed additives as a group of substances that can cause a desired animal response in a non-nutrient role, such as pH shift, growth, or metabolic modifier. Feed additives are added deliberately to animal feed which may favourably influences characteristics of the animal feed, feed intake, gastro-intestinal flora, digestibility of the animal feeds, animal production, health, fertility and characteristics of animal products. Because of their chemical nature as active principles, additives are generally included in very small proportions in diet.

Introduction

Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredient which beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of health-promoting bacteria in the intestinal tract, thus improving the host‘s microbial balance (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995). Normally, prebiotics contain some type of a non-digestible carbohydrate fraction (Rehman et al., 2009). Almost 90% of oligosaccharides escape digestion in the small intestine and reach the colon where they selectively stimulate the growth and/or activity of beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacteria, Lactobacillus and Streptococcus, providing prebiotic properties (Stanton et al., 2003). These bacteria populate the gut filling any niches were pathogenic bacteria may attempt to take hold. This concept is better known as competitive exclusion. Prebiotics function by lowering the gut pH through lactic acid production, inhibiting/preventing colonization of pathogens, modifying metabolic activity of normal intestinal flora, and stimulation of the immune system (Doyle and Erickson, 2006). Studies have demonstrated that these bacteria reduce pathogenic bacteria like Salmonella spp., Clostridium diffile and Campylobacter spp. (Hopkins and Macfarlane, 2003; Stern et al. 2000), by diverse mechanisms including competitive exclusion of nutrients or adhesion sites to intestinal mucosa (Stern et al. 2000) and fatty acid of short chain production, like propionic and butyric acids, which modifies the acidic conditions and inhibits the growth of microorganisms that cause infections (Collins and Gibson, 1999).

Introduction

To improve the growth and health status, addition of antibiotics in the poultry feed was a common practice in last decade. Currently, in developed countries it is banned due to fatal consequences like development of antimicrobial resistant organism pool in the gut, persistence of antibiotic residue in the food chain that can reduce the food safety level. Therefore, various alternatives are now a day thought to use as poultry feed additives. Immunomodulaors are presently receiving wide attention as feed additives.

The term ‘immunomodulation’ is generally used to describe the manipulation of immune system which consists either increase (immunostimulation) or decrease (immunosuppression) in the magnitude of the immune system function. The chemicals or biological substances producing this phenomenon are known as ‘immunomodulators’. Specific immunomodulation involves the change in the immune response with a particular antigen (e.g. vaccination). Whereas, non-specific immunomodulation alters the immune response in such a way so that it become sensitive to a wide range of antigens. Generally this kind of non-specific immunomodulators are used as poultry feed additive to increase the resistance against the wide range of infections. The principal components of the immune system targeted for immunomodulation include T cells, B cells, monocytes, macrophages, granulocytes and natural killer cells (Dalloul and Lillehoj, 2005).

Introduction

Coccidiosis is the most economically harmful disease encountered in commercial poultry production. It is caused by single celled protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria which are commonly referred to as coccidia. Williams (1998) reported that the annual worldwide loss is about $ 800 million. The total loss due to coccidiosis is found to be Rs. 1.14 billion in India. The important finding is that almost 70 percent of the estimated cost is due to subclinical coccidiosis, by impact on weight gain and feed conversion rate. One of the reasons for these remarkable finding is probably the difficult diagnosis of subclinical coccidiosis.

Chickens are susceptible to at least seven species of Eimeria. The most common species are Eimeria tenella, which causes the caecal coccidiosis, E. necatrix &E. maxima, which causes mid intestinal coccidiosis, E. acervulina which causes anterior intestinal coccidiosis and E. brunetti which causes posterior intestinal or rectal coccidiosis. E. mitis and E. praecox are generally mildly pathogenic and commonly occurring as co-infection/mixed infection in with other species. Coccidiosis is particularly difficult to combat because several different species of Eimeria exist in the field. Poultry may become infected with different species because the immunity that develops after infection is specific only to one species. Eimeria has direct and complex life cycle that involves many developmental stages within the host cells. Each Eimeria species has characteristic intestinal lesions and type of diarrhoea (with or without blood).

Introduction

For raising animal and its products especially protein, food and nutrition plays an important role. Feed cost comprises about 60% of total recurring expenditure. Feed additives play an increasingly important role in animal nutrition by augmenting the performance by maintaining the needs of essential nutrients, improving feed conversion therefore optimize feed utilization (Wenk, 2000). Feed additives are a group of feed ingredients that can cause a desired animal response in a non-nutrient role, such as rumen modifier, growth or metabolic modifier (Hutjens, 1991). These are used in micro quantities and require careful handling and mixing. The development and introduction of various new feed additives is a major and practical solution to improve the efficiency of animal production, to alleviate environmental pollution, to maintain animal health, welfare and to ensure the safe and of good quality food production.

Introduction

With the introduction of chemical pesticides in India during 1947 when 250 tonnes of DDT was imported for Malaria eradication programme, there is a steady increase in consumption and at present about 25 per cent of the cropped area is covered by pesticides. Their use has helped in increasing the productivity over the years. The consumption pattern of different groups of insecticides has indicated the same trend. The Indian pesticide industry with 85,000 MT of production in is ranked second in Asia (behind China) and twelfth globally. The Indian pesticides industry is dominated by insecticides where herbicides and fungicides are the key segments globally. Among the pesticides, insecticides account for 57 per cent, fungicide 28.7 per cent and herbicides 14.0 per cent during the year ending 1997-98. Owing to the ban of highly persistent organochlorine pesticides, there is decrease in the trend. Among the different crops, cotton consumes 44.5 per cent of the pesticide worth of Rs.2462.13 millions, even though it occupies only 5 per cent of the cropped area. Cotton is followed by rice (22.00% of pesticides) and other crops.

Proteinase inhibitors (PIs) are small proteins that are quite common in nature. They are natural, defense-related proteins often present in seeds and induced in certain plant tissues by herbivory or wounding (Koiwa et al., 1997). PIs are present in multiple forms in numerous tissues of animals and plants as well as in microorganisms. In plants they can be counted among the defensive mechanisms displayed against phytophagous insects and microorganisms. The defensive capacities of plant PIs rely on inhibition of proteases present in insect guts or secreted by microorganisms, causing a reduction in the availability of amino acids necessary for their growth and development. PIs are of common occurrence in the plant kingdom. Plant PIs (PPIs) are generally small proteins that have mainly been described as occurring in storage tissues, such as tubers and seeds, but they have also been found in the aerial parts of plants (De Leo et al., 2002). One of the important defense strategies that are found in plants to combat predators involve PIs which are in particular effective against phytophagous insects and microorganisms. The defensive capabilities of PPIs rely on inhibition of proteases present in insect guts or secreted by microorganisms, causing a reduction in the availability of amino acids necessary for their growth and development (Lawrence and Koundal, 2002).

Vegetables not only provide nutritional security but also income security to small and marginal land holders growing vegetables in the hinterlands of urban markets and dollar earners in global markets. India is endowed with favorable tropical, subtropical and temperate climate making it conducive for producing high quality vegetables round the year in one or other part of the county. As far as production is concerned, India is in number two in the world after China. But, as a matter of fact, in terms of productivity and subsequently for per capita availability, we are still lagging behind many countries of the world. Per capita availability of vegetables is 210-gm/capita/day against 300 gm/capita/day recommended by ICMR. There is urgent need to increase the productivity of vegetables in our country to feed the increasing population.

Introduction

Plant protection in India is mainly based on use of pesticidal chemicals. Chemical control is one of the effective and quicker methods in reducing pest population where farmer gets spectacular results within a short time. However, indiscriminate use of pesticides results in a series of problems in the agricultural ecosystem mainly the development of resistance in insects to insecticides, resurgence of treated population, environmental contamination and residue hazards. Destruction of natural enemies of insect-pests, expenses on pesticides etc. contributed to a new way of thinking concerning pest control practices i.e. integrated approach of pest control. IPM was first proposed by Stern and his collegues for integration of biological and chemical control measures. This is not altogether a new concept; it was practiced before the advent of modern chemicals. The date of sowing the crop were carefully studied to ensure that crop was not being planted when it would encounter severe pest problems, cultural practices such as ploughing after harvest, timely weed control, well timed irrigation and reduced use of fertilizers all contributed to reduce pest population. Most of these methods were curtailed when modern pesticides become available it was thought that these chemicals alone could control pests, but now we know that this is not possible and a single method of approach in pest control is not feasible. An integrated approach of pest management (IPM) was devised on the principles of managing the pest rather than eradicating them. IPM is a broad ecological approach for managing pest problem encompassing available methods and techniques such as cultural, biological, mechanical and chemical in a compatible manner to reduce and maintain the pest problem below the economic injury level.

Introduction

In this era of international competitiveness of knowledge economy, there is an emergent need for identifying new knowledge streams likely to emerge for mapping the directions for transition of knowledge from industry to information technology. National Knowledge Commission, Government of India has undertaken a survey of agricultural sector for exploring and discovering the dynamic role of innovation of knowledge for growth and competitiveness and recommended for ascertaining the role of the Governmental factors as innovation enablers in development of Indian economy (Anon, 2006). The knowledge network and development of knowledge infrastructure in the field of information and communication technology lead for knowledge generation, knowledge transfer and it’s preservation as intellectual property right which will support for adoption of effective knowledge management practices and provide guidelines for envisioning the policy makers to formulate appropriate plans in the filed of research and development.

The term ‘Ecology’ deals with the study of organisms from all sources and their interaction with surrounding environments. The aim of ecology is, therefore, to understand and also to explain the relationships of all organisms to their environment. In this respect, the duty of the ecologist is to study a particular environment, estimate the population of each species, recognize the communities, and determine their activities and their interactions with both related species, the rest of the community, and their environment. Macroecological studies always initiate by defining the species composition and then proceed to draw certain conclusions on the role of these species in the ecosystem. On the other hand microbial, especially bacterial classical taxonomy (based on isolation techniques and determination of morphology and in vitro biochemical characteristics of isolates) for determination of each species of aquatic bacteria is almost impossible, except in a few cases. Consequently, the microbial ecologist has to depend upon certain methods that can measure the biomass or activity of a very large conglomerate of coexisting microbial taxa in an aquatic environment. Probably, this has caused the very slow development of microbial ecology concepts and application of a general ecological theory to the microbial ecology.

Introduction

Fish and the aquaculture products contribute a significant amount of animal protein to the diet of the people worldwide. Being highly nutritive they serve as valuable food supplement in diets lacking essential vitamins and minerals. Besides its role of food security, fish is a source of income for millions of people around the World. Though the trade is not prominent at Global level, in some countries its contribution to foreign currency earning is vital to the National Economy. India has a coastline measuring 7500 km and important aquaculture country in the World. Being the home for more than 10% of the global fish biodiversity, the country ranks third in the World in the total fish production with an annual fish production of about 6.4 million tones. Constituting over the 1% of the GDP, fisheries contributes to 5.3% of the agricultural GDP. The estimated foreign earning for the year 2006 was US$ 1365 million.

Introduction

The floodplain wetlands or beels are used as multiple use and multiple users system. The large numbers of the stakeholders participate in the beels both within fisheries and across other sectors like forestry, animal husbandry, agriculture, flood control etc. (Sugunan & Sinha 2001, Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2004). The different set of stakeholders constitutes a diverse set of interests, goals and priorities for the fisheries. Therefore, under the present context, the fisheries managers face an extremely complex situation in governing fisheries of the wetlands. Such complexities lead to sub-optimal or unwise use of the wetlands. There is growing concern over the depletion of resources, poor quality of aquatic environment, poor potential realization, poor fisheries management, inequities, conflicts, over exploitation etc of the beels (CIFRI 2000, Pomeroy & William 1994, Welcomme & Bartley 1998). These issues are the outcome of the complex fisheries exploitation system and research efforts are being made to find suitable management regimes to address such issues. The evaluation of outcomes, identification of the shortcomings and understanding decision making process have been an important researchable areas (Pomeroy & William 1994, ICLARM & NSC 1998). Evaluation of a system should include depiction of its goals or objectives and an assessment of how well they are met as well as obstacles faced in meeting them. Accordingly, it is important to identify the management context of the beel fisheries management viz., the formal goals of a fishery management regime; the formal or informal goals of the various actors within it; the processes by which goals are identified and contested; processes through which they are linked to other aspects of the regime- including knowledge production and the implementation of action measures (ICES 2000). Therefore, it is imperative to understand the objectives, decision making process and criteria for evaluation of the fisheries management of the wetlands as a step towards further research in designing effective management regimes. The paper attempts to delineate the system in the simplistic way as well as review the relevant literature to map the objectives, decision making arrangements and evaluation criteria for assessing the fisheries management regimes of the beels. The present paper has been made based on the experience and understanding developed in the context of the beel fisheries management of Assam.

Introduction

The business models, in general are based on traditional ways of strategy formulation and implementation, leading to incremental and non- disruptive change in the nature of business and agri-industry practices. In today’s knowledge environment, we know that agri-businesses cannot survive by just running harder, but rather by running differently and “smarter” than competitors. (Seven et.al, 2005). This article suggests a sense-testing tool for the extensionists and administrators to enable disruptive innovation of extension-led business models through examples and case evidence.

Business is fundamentally concerned with creating value and capturing returns from that value. The term creating and capturing value reflects two fundamental functions that all extension organizations must perform to remain viable over an extended period of time. Successful extension organizations (SEOs) create substantial value by doing things in ways that differentiate them from the competition. The SEOs might develop core competencies, capabilities, and positional advantages that are different from those of competitors.

Introduction

The Horticulture crops and commercial crops like sugarcane have become a key drivers for economic development in many of the states in India, and it contributes 29.5 per cent and 24.80 percent respectively to the GDP of agriculture, which calls for technology-led development. The research priorities for genetic resource enhancement and its utilization, enhancing the efficiency of production and reducing the losses in environment friendly manner and effectively channellising the marketing for the produce. Accordingly the research was taken up to study on the prioritization of research for the crops viz., sugarcane, banana and jasmine. The study deals with the knowledge, adoption and research priorities on selected crops’ cultivation which has already been occurred.

Introduction

Sugarcane based production system has to go a long way to turn hightech because of the existing technological gap in the irrigated agroecosystem. This has been realized more in the recent studies undertaken by social scientists. All the crops associated with the sugarcane based production need varietal introduction as well as the adoption of relevant crop management practices. Since the possibility of increasing area under sugarcane is remote in view of emerging low input high value crops, the projected target of 420 million tonnes by 2020 AD has to be achieved by enhancing the cane productivity and sugar recovery concurrently. The full exploitation of the existing improved sugarcane production technologies and development of a package of agro-techniques in the changing scenario of sugarcane based production system suiting to the socio-economic conditions of the farmers is as such the only master key to unlock the yield potential of sugarcane.

Introduction

Indian forests are being denuded at an appalling rate of 1.5 million ha per year but only a tenth of this is being renewed. This has resulted in the accelerated dwindling of forest resources to a meager level of 23.55 per cent of the total geographical area against the mandated requirement of 33 per cent. This low forest cover coupled with poor productivity (0.5 -0.7 m³ ha-1 yr^-1) in comparative global statistics (2.1 m³ ha-1 yr^-1) of Indian forest has ushered in a total mismatch between supply and demand of both domestic and industrial wood besides creating environmental de- stability and disequilibrium. The National Forest Policy of 1988 has resolved to phase out the supply of raw material to wood based industries and ultimately totally stopped the raw material supply from the forest (Anon., 1988). The policy also indicated that wood based industries have to become self reliance in meeting the raw material demand by establishing direct linkages with the farmers by providing lending facilitates and other input needs. This is going to pave the way for a strong industry-farmer nexus, with many farmers attracted towards tree husbandry due to assured marketability and income. As the activity gets intensified, location specific problems warranting solution are also found to be in the ascendancy.

Introduction

Very few countries have experienced rapid economic growth without agricultural growth either preceding or accompanying it. Agricultural growth is a catalyst for broad based economic development in most of the low-income countries. Over the last few decades, the share of agriculture in GDP has steadily declined in India from over 19.7 per cent in the 1970-7 to 5.7 per cent in 2009-10. In contrast, the share of industry and services has increased to 26.4 and 55.1 per cent respectively due to greater focus on these sectors. But, agriculture still remains the backbone of Indian economy as nearly as 58 per cent of the rural population depends upon agriculture and allied activities for livelihood. The National Agricultural Development Policy (NADP) of India envisages a growth rate of 4 per cent per annum in the agriculture sector so as to achieve a target of over 300 million tonnes of food grain production by the year 2020. (Survey of Indian Agriculture, 2007).

Horticulture includes fruits, vegetables, floriculture, spices, tubers, plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic plants and mushrooms. The sector has established its importance in improving land use, promoting crop diversification, generating employment and above all providing nutritional security to the people. Even though India is the second largest producer of horticulture produces in the world, our per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables are very low.

Gain threshold: The beginning point of economic damage, expressed in amount of harvestable produce; when cost of suppressing insect injury equals money to be gained from avoiding the damage.

Galea: The lateral lobe of the maxillary stipes; tonguelike, distal lobe attached to the stipes of the maxilla; an apical lobe of the maxilla of an insect; the outer two-jointed lobe of the “pincers” present on the maxilla of insect mouthparts; in adult Lepidoptera the two are joined and enlarged to form the proboscis. (Fig. 63)

Gall: Swellings, deformities, or growths of plant tissue that result from the activities various types of pests, including bacteria, nematodes, mites and insects; an abnormal growth of plant tissues, caused by the stimulus of an animal or another plant (Fig. 128).

Gallicolous: Living in a plant gall either as the producer or inquiline.

Characterization of Germplasm / Hybrids, Varietal identification, mutants etc.

Accurate identification of plants is desired for patent protection of plant varieties. Accurate characterization is also necessary to trace out the parents of new varieties. Use of present day molecular markers in addition to the classical methods provides more positive identification of new cultivars. RAPD and other molecular techniques have been used in a variety of plant materials for such studies (Sneath and Sokal 1973, Saitou and Nei 1987, Demeke et al., 1992, Selvam and Rajasekaran  1993, 1994, Dubouzet, et al., 1997, 1998, Hallden, et al., 1994, Hu and Quiros 1991, Jain et al., 1994, Matsumoto and Fukui 1996, Williams et al., 1990, Wolff et al., 1995). RAPD technique has been used in the genus Bougainvillea. It is often difficult to distinguish both mutants and hybrids and sports having a common progenitor, or progenitors themselves. Therefore, the industry needs a DNA-based fingerprinting technique to distinguish mutants or cultivars reliably. Reports are available on investigation about the molecular systematics and genetic differences for better understanding of varietal relationships in bougainvillea (Chatterjee et al., 2007, Kumar et al., 2006, Kumar et al., 2014, Hammad 2009, Pavan Kumar et al., 2015). 

For crop improvement and more specifically to develop new varieties a number of plant breeding methods are available. CSIR-NBRI from very beginning selected all available techniques and standardized their practical application for all ornamental crops. All crop specific basic information was collected/generated for successful application of techniques for development of new varieties by creating genetic variability. Ornamental plant species fall into two main categories. In the first group the plants that are capable of sexual reproduction, but are commercially propagated vegetatively. The second group of plant species are the apomicts. In obligate apomicts hybridization fails to generate any variability. For development of new variety creation of genetic variability is pre-requisite. Breeder should have all up-to-date knowledge about all the available techniques and their merits and demerits for improvement and development of new varieties.

Introduction
Statistics is a field of mathematics that pertains to data analysis. Statistical methods and equations can be applied to a data set in order to analyze and interpret results, explain variations in the data, or predict future data. A few examples of statistical information we can calculate are:
Average value (mean)

In genetic studies it is necessary to distinguish two causes of correlation; is chiefly pleiotropy, though linkage is a cause of transient correlation, particularly in populations derived from crosses between divergent strains. Pleiotropy is simply the property of a gene whereby it affects two or more characters, so that if the gene is segregating it causes simultaneous variation in the characters as affects. For example, genes that increase growth rate increase both stature and weight, so that they tend to cause correlation between these two characters. The degree of correlation arising from pleiotropy expresses the extent to which two characters are influenced by the same genes. But the correlation resulting from pleiotropy is the overall, or net, effect of all the segregating genes that affect both characters. Some genes may increase both characters, while others increase one and reduce the other the former tend to cause a positive correlation the latter a negative one. So pleiotropy does not necessarily cause a detectable correlation. The correlation resulting from environmental causes is the overall effect of all the environmental factors that vary; some may tend to cause a positive correlation, others a negative one.

The response to selection is the change produced in the population mean through selection. This is achieved through selecting as parents of the next generation, individuals with highest genetic merit and whose progeny will, as a group, have the highest possible genetic merit for the trait in question. 

When a variety is grown under different environmental conditions, phenotype is the result of genotype+environment+genotype×environment interaction. Genotype×environment refers to the interaction effect of the genotype with different environments. Presence of this interaction leads to overestimation of genetical and biometrical parameters and thus may yield misleading results. This interaction also influences the varietal adaptation of new improved genotypes. Adaptation refers to certain varietal features (morphological and physiological) which promote survival under that environment. In production and breeding programmes adaptability is related to economic yield i.e. genotypes producing higher economic yield under different environmental conditions are comparatively more adaptive than those which produce low yield. Varietal adaptability refers to the capability of a genotype to grow normally and perform well in an environment or different environments. Adaptation of genotypes depends upon certain characters i.e. both morphological and physiological which promote survival under an environment. In natural conditions adaptation is brought by natural selection, but in artificial breeding, adaptation is induced by the breeders.

Agriculture is a branch of Applied science. It is the main enterprise in the world. In a true sense, it is a productive unit where the gift of nature i.e. land, light, air, temperature, water, humidity etc. are integrated into a single primary unit – crop plants and their usable parts are thus indispensable for human beings. Secondary productive units are animals (livestock), birds, insects etc. and they  feed on these primary units and provide more solid products such as meat, milk, wool, eggs, honey, silk, leather etc.
The word agriculture is derived from two Latin words i.e. Ager/Agric means soil and cultura means cultivation. Thus, “Agriculture is a science of cultivation of land”. It is an art and science both in which we study all the activities of human beings related to use of soil. 

Several centuries ago, perhaps as early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient man learned to domesticate species of animals for obtaining milk for their consumption. These included cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and camels, all of which are still used in various parts of the world for the production of milk for human use. The significance of milk as the most wholesome single food available in nature has never been debated. It is as ancient as mankind itself. The role and consumption pattern of milk in the traditional diet varies widely in different regions of the world. The tropical countries have not been traditional milk consumers, whereas in Europe (especially Scandinavia) and North America, milk and milk products have been traditional parts of the diet.