eChapters

The first use of rubber was by the Olmecs, who centuries later passed on the knowledge of natural latex from the Hevea tree in 1600 BC to the ancient Mayans. They boiled the harvested latex to make a ball for a Mesoamerican ballgame.

Liquid milk is the cheapest form of milk whereas value added products like yoghurt and paneer, already popular in India are ways to earn a higher income with some raw materials. Farms should focus on dairy herd improvement, herd management etc. Milk and dairy products are always very helpful to farmers for a constant source of income besides their regular farm products. They do not required to expend extra for their feeding if the number of cattle are less. With slight extra care they can earn enough to meet their daily expenses. Cows, buffalo, all the milk giving animals are easy to care.

All over the world, when people get richer their life style change and they consume more animal protein, especially meat. We may add value by good genetics and know how in farm and feed management. There would be huge demand for poultry products and meat in coming years in India as per capita income of middle class people is gradually increasing and for that production of meat and meat products is required to be increased to meet the demand. Meat of goat, buffalo chicken are generally sold in India. Marketing of meat and meat products, chicken and poultry products such as eggs are the main challenges for the new farmers as there is no ready market in India. Recently there is huge demand of Chicken in Northern India. The initial problem faced by farmers is getting the special chicken feed for the different age groups. There is no well equipped dedicated slaughter house available in every city. New technology for animal slaughter is required so that all parts of animal are used properly without losing valuable protein. The idea should be to use innovated technology to optimize the profits in the chain.

Food prices have risen 6% in the last six months. But it is expected to rise further as expensive energy, squeezed supplies and volatile weather take a combined toll. The biggest factor pushing prices is the cost of producing and marketing crops. Several factors will make farming more expensive in the coming months. The first variable is weather. Preliminary forecasts by a few foreign and private Indian meteorologists say India could have a below-normal monsoon because a weather phenomenon called El Nino is warming the Pacific Ocean. El Nino usually affects monsoon winds headed for India. Forecasters say monsoon might arrive on time but could falter during August-September, especially in the north.

1.1 Spice – definition and uses

Spice is defined as “a strongly flavoured or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. A spice is a dried seed, fruit, root, rhizome, bark or vegetative substance or flower bud used in nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purposes. Herbs, such as basil or oregano, may be used fresh, and are commonly chopped into smaller pieces; spices, however, are dried and usually ground into a powder (http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Spice). American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. Included are tropical aromatics (pepper, cinnamon, cloves, etc.), leafy herbs (basil, oregano, marjoram, etc.), spice seeds (sesame, poppy, mustard, etc.) and dehydrated vegetables (onions, garlic, etc.) (http://www.astaspice.org/spice/frame_spice.htm). Many spices have other uses like food preservation, medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, and perfumery or as vegetables.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soil fertility can be considered to be a measure of the soil’s ability to sustain satisfactory crop growth, both in the short and longer-term. Organic farming recognizes the soil as being central to a sustainable farming system. It could be argued that organically managed soils require a higher level of baseline fertility because shortfalls cannot be made up by applications of soluble fertilizers. Soil fertility is determined by a set of interactions between the physical and chemical environments of the system and by biological activity. Organic matter is linked intrinsically to soil fertility, because it is important in maintaining good soil physical conditions (e.g. soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity) and is an important nutrient reserve. Organic matter contains most of the soil reserve of N and large proportions of other nutrients such as phosphorus and sulphur.

1.0. INTRODUCTION

The plant nutrient cycling depends on micro organisms that constitute major components of the biosphere. Although less than one per cent is cultured, a tremendous diversity exists in their populations. Transformation of nutrients from soil to plants is brought about by soil microorganisms. Latest molecular techniques enable scientists to understand and appreciate the diversity and help to utilize the beneficial effects of microbial diversity for increased productivity. Among soil organisms intense activity is found in and around rhizosphere of plants because of the presence of the secreted nutrients such as carbohydrates, amino acids and other cellular components present at the growing tip of roots. These root colonizing micro organism form symbiotic, associative, or parasitic relationship with the plants. These organisms have evolved mechanisms to occupy and reside in the specialized niche. These mechanisms are often utilized both for growth enhancement and disease suppression. The host also plays an important role in selecting its own microflora for the rhizosphere similar to the probiotic microflora of human gastrointestinal tract (Haas and Keel 2003).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Infestation by insect pests is a major factor responsible for the low productivity of spice crops in India. Spice crops such as black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) are infested by many species of insect pests, some of which cause severe crop losses. Adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) schedules in which biological control forms a major component is more relevant in these crops since excessive use of insecticides could lead to pesticide residues in the produce and other ecological hazards. Spices are high-value and export-oriented in nature and pesticide residues are the most important non-tariff barriers on trade in these produces. There has been a renewed interest during the past decade in developing environment–friendly crop management schedules in sustainable agriculture including spice crops, reflecting the increasing concern over pesticide misuse.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

“Biological control is the reduction of the amount of inoculum or disease producing activity of a pathogen  or parasite  in its active or dormant state, by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the environment, host or antagonist or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists ” (Baker & Cook 1974). The biological world is a vast interacting network of living organisms in a state of dynamic equilibrium, reflecting changes in their physical environment and their relations to each other. Organisms exhibit many type of interactions in the process of achieving biological balance.  An organism may exert no effect on another or it may stimulate or inhibit the growth or development of the associate, it may stimulate or inhibit the formation of resting spores of the associate or it may enforce dormancy or cause lysis of the associate (Cooke & Baker, 1983).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The bacteria in the genus Ralstonia, Xanthomonas, Agrobacterium, Xylella, Pantoea, Leifsonia, Curtobacterium, Enterobactor, Pseudomonas, Corynebacterium, Erwinia cause the most important bacterial diseases of crop plants. Few of them are directly responsible for post harvests losses during storage or transit and many of them are known to cause disease in the field. These diseases are economically important due their potential to cause crop failure in crops including spice crops. Among the bacteria genus Ralstonia is very important owing to its broad host range across the plant kingdom. Traditionally bacterial diseases of crops are prevented by the principle of ‘Disease Avoidance’ rather than disease control in the field. Their fast rate of multiplication, selective host and rapid spread in the field makes the disease control one of the challenges in the production system. The organic strategies are very well fit in the disease avoidance in the field. The preemptive strategies works exceedingly well for management of bacterial disease in any crop. Few genus such as Ralstonia, Enterobacter and Xanthomonas have been frequented in spice crops.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Plant parasitic nematodes are among the major soil-borne crop pests that cause significant economic losses to a wide variety of crops. They cause an estimated annual crop-yield loss of US$78 billion worldwide which warrants for effective control strategies (Sasser and Freckman, 1987). Nematodes have the greatest impact on crop productivity when they attack the roots of seedlings or young plantlets (Ploeg, 2001). Nematode feeding also creates open wounds that provide entry to a wide variety of plant-pathogenic fungi and bacteria. These microbial infections are often more economically damaging than the direct effects of nematode feeding.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Black pepper popularly known as ‘King of spices’ or ‘Black gold’ is one of the important and earliest known spices produced and exported from India. Its original home is the dense evergreen forests of Western Ghats in south India. The flavour and fragrance of this oriental spice had a magic spell in human civilization and culture since very ancient days. Expeditions in search of pepper led to the discovery of new trade routes.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton.) acclaimed as the ‘Queen of Spices’ is the true cardamom belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. The cardamom of commerce is the dried ripe fruit and is one of the most important valued spices next only to saffron. It is native of evergreen forests of Western Ghats of South India. Cardamom is a shade loving plant (Pseophyte) thriving well in elevations up to 600-1200 m above MSL under an average annual rainfall of 1500-4000 mm and temperature range of 10-350C. India has been the world’s largest producer of cardamom until 1979-80. Later, Guatemala emerged as world’s premier producer and the exporter of cardamom accounting for about 90 per cent of the global trade. Cardamom is also grown lesser extent in Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea and Tanzania.

1. INTRODUCTION

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a perennial herb and the economic part is underground stem (rhizome), which is used as a spice. It is native to tropical South-East Asia, introduced into the West Indies, African countries and other tropical belt of the world. The ginger rhizome is harvested between 6 and 12 months after planting and used as spice in the fresh condition,  peeled and split dried or powedered forms. Ginger is utilized widely as a spice, for pickles, candies and as a medicinal herb. The anti-inflammatory and anti-nausea qualities of ginger have applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Ginger and supplements derived from ginger have received attention for the treatment of chronic inflammation. Administration of ginger has resulted in decreased symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (Srivastava and Mustafa, 1992) and gingerol (a component of ginger) has been reported to have anti-inflammatory actions (Kiuchi et al., 1992; Tjendraputra et al., 2001).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val. (syn. C. longa Koenig non L.) is an important spice, a native of India and South East Asia. Chikarmane et al. (2003) by analyzing historical patterns of movement of South Asian and Southeast Asian people known to have used turmeric suggested that turmeric was introduced into Southeast Asia via Indian colonization in the early Christian centuries. An increase in colonization events from South India during this time was because of discoveries in navigational science and desires to expand civilizations, rather than military conquests. The cultural expansion from South India supports the introduction of turmeric cultivation to Southeast Asia via human means. These human migratory patterns are compared to a phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence data within Curcuma, and suggested that key locations such as the Isthmus of Kra were important not only to human movement but to species evolution in Curcuma (Chikarmane et al., 2003).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Vanilla is one of the most popular and widely used flavour materials in the world and it is the most expensive spice traded in the global market after Saffron (Crocus sativus L). The major consumers of vanilla beans currently are the developed countries with the US, France and Germany absorbing about 80 per cent of the world imports. Among them, the US imports 50-60 per cent while the latter 10-15 per cent each. They are also main re-exporters of both vanilla beans and processed products. The total area under vanilla cultivation in the world during 2002 was 38,066 ha with the production of around 4956 metric tones and increased to 76,440 ha with a production of 10, 360 tons during 2005 (FAO, 2007). The major vanilla producing countries are Madagascar, Comoros, Indonesia, Mexico and Reunion (Table 1). Area under vanilla in India during 2002-03 was 2545 ha with the production of 92 tonnes. (Spices Board, 2003) and increased to 5370 ha with a production of 196 tonnes during 2004-05.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Among tree spices, nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt) belonging to the family Myristicaceae is the most important, providing two spices, i.e. the nutmeg (dried seed) and the mace (dried aril covering the seed). The latter is more important. Nutmeg is cultivated mostly in the tropical areas of Indonesia and West Indies. The world annual production of nutmeg and mace is around 12000 tonnes and 2000 tonnes, respectively (Krishnamoorthy and Rema, 2001). A native of the Moluccas (The Banda Islands of East Indonesia), nutmeg is presently cultivated in several countries such as Grenada, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Fiji, some Caribbean Islands, Africa and China including India. Of late, Brazil also started its cultivation. The Indonesian nutmeg known as East Indian nutmeg shares 75% and Grenadian known as West Indian nutmeg shares 25% of world market and they are major suppliers in the world. The East Indian nutmeg is highly aromatic which is preferred by the USA. West Indian type is of mild flavour and is preferred in Europe. The major importers are USA, Canada, Japan and European countries. In USA, the oil is generally preferred whereas the Europeans consume it as whole spice.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Capsicum or chilli including paprika belonging to family Solanaceae, is a native of new world tropics and sub tropics. Within the genus Capsicum, mainly five species have been recognized as domesticated namely, Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens and C. pubescens. Most of the commercially cultivated chilli cultivars as well as paprika belong to the species C. annuum. The cultivated Capsicum was introduced to India and Southeastern Asia in the 17th century by the Portugese. The name Capsicum is possibly derived from the Greek word ‘Kapso’ meaning ‘to bite’ referring to the dominant pungency stimulated by the spice, while ‘Paprika’ means plants of the genus Capsicum, in the Hungarian language. ‘Paprika’, is defined in the world market as non-pungent (sweet) brilliant red ground Capsicum powder, derived from the thick flesh dried red pods, with most of the seeds and veins removed. Both chilli and paprika are widely consumed as vegetable and spice all over the world. Mostly, the cultivars grown in Asian countries are pungent, while less and non-pungent cultivars are more common in European countries. Chilli of commerce is the dried pod, while it was pericarp (outer skin of the dried fruit) for paprika.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
 
Coriander is a native of southern Europe and Asia Minor. In a treatise, Farrell (1999) has described coriander as indigenous to the Near East and Mediterranean region of North Africa and Southern Europe. According to early Sanskrit writings, coriander was known as far back as 5000 BC for its cultivation in India. Persia grew coriander 3000 years ago for adding fragrance to hanging garden of Babylon and seeds were found in Egyptian tombs of 960 BC. It has been used as an ingredient to traditional and folk medicine in the Middle East and Asia for more than 2000 years. There is archaeological evidence of coriander cultivation from Early Bronze Age in Macedonia (Fragiska, 2005)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fenugreek is one of the oldest cultivated spice crops of the world and grown for its medicinal value and forage in India, Western Asia and Nile valley since remote antiquity. In Egypt, it has been cultivated since 1000 BC and is part of the Indian diet for over 3000 years. Fenugreek is used as an important component of holy smoke in Egyptian incense. It is found growing wild in parts of northern India and cultivated all over the subcontinent for its green leaves and seeds. Fenugreek is a native of south-eastern Europe and Western Asia.  India is also said to be a native of fenugreek (Shanmugavelu et al., 2002) and found growing wild in Kashmir, Punjab and upper Gangetic plains.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) is important seed spices belonging to family Apiaceae, and a native of Southern Europe and Mediterranean area. Later it spread to the far East and far north in Europe. To the ancient Greeks, fennel represented success and so it was called “Marathon” in reference to the battle, fought in fennel field where the Greeks defeated the Persians in 490 B.C. Fennel was also a symbol of success to the Romans. During the thirteenth century in England, fennel was considered as a royal spice and was served to kings with fruits, bread and pickled fish seasoned with fennel seeds. Fennel was even described by Longfellow in his poem The Goblet of Life. According to early Sanskrit writings, fennel has been described as Madhurika and was known as far back as 2000 BC for its cultivation in India.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The cumin (Cuminum cyminum Linn.) belonging to family Apiaceace is an important seed spice believed to be indigenous to northern Egypt, East Mediterranean region, Iran, Turkey  and India (Amin, 2003; Raghavan, 2007). It is popularly known as safed jeera and is one of the most common spices of daily use in the Indian sub-continent. Cumin is well known to ancient civilization. It is one of the oldest spices known since biblical times, valued mostly for their digestive properties and for flaovouring bread and other dishes during the periods of ceremonial fasting. As early as 5000 BC, Egyptians preserved the bodies of their kings by mummifying them with cumin, anise and marjoram.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The crop production is as old as human civilization, it is an art, science and business. In the world of ‘Fast Food,’ food safety is a watch word. To accomplish safety food to consumers and fair price to producers through appropriate market channels, the concept of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) has evolved in recent years. The stakeholders include governments, food processing and retailing industries, farmers, and consumers, who seek to meet specific objectives of food security, food quality, production efficiency, livelihoods and environmental benefits in both the medium and long term. GAP offers a means to help reach those objectives.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The most significant factors distinguishing organic farming from eco-farming are the existence of production standards and certification procedures. Certification of organic farming is the procedure by which a written assurance is given by the certification agency that a clearly identified production or processing system has been methodically assessed and conforms to the specified requirements. It is a process certification rather than a product certification. Certification and labelling is usually done by an independent body to provide a guarantee that the production standards are met.  In case of organic products, certification is an acknowledgement that the products are produced according to organic production standards of certification bodies or associations or of the country. Organic production system is a land use system in accordance with set standards to the location specific conditions by integrating practices that foster cycling of resources, promoting ecological balance and conserve biodiversity. The prime principles of organic farming are,

1.1 Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is a well-known table fruit of tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The Romans received it from Carthage, hence the name of the genus Punica. Some botanists place it in the family Lythraceae, of the peculiar type of fruit, called as balausta, most authorities make it the only genus in the family Punicaceae. It belongs to genera Punica and family Punicaceae (Chatterjee & Randhawa, 1952; Joshi, 1956). It is a small tree, measuring less than 4 m when cultivated, although it can reach 7 m in the wild. Recent research findings corroborate traditional use of pomegranate as a medical remedy as all parts of this plant have several bioactive metabolites (Holland et al. 2009). Consequently, its demand has increased tremendously not only in the western world but also in other parts of the globe.

2.1 Soil and Climate

Pomegranate grows well in sandy-loam and well-drained soils having a pH of 7.5. It can also be grown on light soils. Quality and colour development in light soils is good but poor in heavy soils. It tolerates salinity up to 9.00 EC/mm and sodicity 6.78 ESP. Even it can be grown well in slightly saline soils as it is considered a saline-tolerant plant (Patil and Waghmare 1983; Rao and Khandelwal 2001; Ram Asrey et al., 2002). Accumulation of salts, in excess of 0.5% of the soil mass causes dying off of growing roots. Interestingly, application of Paclobutrazol (250 ppm) was reported to reduce salinity damage (Saeed 2005). The presence of water-soluble salts like sulphates and chlorides and ex- changeable sodium negatively affect root formation.

3.1 Integrated Insect Pests Management

1. Anar butterfly [Deudorix (Virachola) isocrates Fabricus]

Pomegranate fruit borer or pomegranate butterfly is the most widespread, polyphagous and destructive pest distributed all over India and common in Asia. Peak incidence is during the month of August in monsoon season, while it is more during November/December in winter crop. Infestation from flowering to button stage causing loss up to 50 per cent of the fruit. Adult bluish brown butterfly, female with V shaped patch on forewing. Full-grown larvae are dark brown with short hair and white patches all over the body and measures about 16 to 20mm long. The larvae bore into the pomegranate fruits soon after hatching. Once inside the fruit, larvae (approx 2cm length) feed on the flesh and seeds.  The bored hole is plugged by the last abdominal segment of the larva. When fully grown, the larva comes out by boring through the hard shell and spins a web, which ties the fruit, stalk to the main branch. Offensive smell and excreta of caterpillars coming out of the entry holes with excreta stuck around the holes. The fruits rot and drop off. The holes ultimately expose the rest of the fruit to disease, and typically rot off the tree.

4.1 Harvesting

Pomegranate being non-climacteric fruits should be picked when fully ripe. Its fruits become ready for picking 120-130 days after fruit set. Mature fruits should be immediately removed from the plants as delay in harvesting leads to fruit cracking. Fruits harvested at a premature stage have poor keeping quality and are prone to damage during handling and transport. The fruits are harvested when outer rind becomes yellowish and the fruit when tapped produces a metallic sound. The round fruits become flattened from all the sides and basal beak shaped portion shrinks at the time of maturity. Fruits are harvested with the help of secateurs by retaining 1 cm stalk with the fruit. All the fruits should be harvested in 2-3 pickings within a span of one month.

5.1 Present Status

Export of pomegranate has decreased in quantity from 36,027.43 tons in 2012-13 to 20,997.02 tons in 2014-15, whereas in value term it show an increase trend during the same period. There is tremendous potential for exports of pomegranate from India and it is fact that India is largest producer of pomegranates in the world. Moreover, India produces finest edible quality of pomegranates which are available almost throughout the year. The major Markets of India’s pomegranate during the year 2014-15 were UAE, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Netherland.

6.1 Strength of India
    ·    In India, pomegranate is cultivated over 1.31 lakh ha with a production of 13.46 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 10.27 t/ha. 
    ·    India is the largest producer of pomegranates in the world.
    ·    Pomegranate is currently ranked 10th in terms of fruit consumed annually in the world. India is the only country in the world where pomegranate is available throughout the year i.e. From January to December. It is cultivated in 3 seasons (Ambia bahar, Mrig bahar and hasth bahar) in Deccan plateau of India. 
    ·    India is endowed with wide agro climatic conditions that offer immense scope for cultivation of various kinds of fruit crops. This provides an excellent platform for the country to emerge as a leading producer of fruit crop. 

A horizon: i) The surface soil horizon of a mineral soil having maximum organic matter accumulation, maximum biological activity or eluviation of materials such as iron, aluminium oxides and silicate clays. ii) A mineral horizon that formed at the surface or below an O horizon, obliterating all or much of the original rock structure and (a) characterized by an accumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with the mineral fraction and not dominated by properties characteristic of E horizon or B horizon. See also B horizon, C horizon.

Abatement: Refers to reducing the degree or intensity of greenhouse-gas emissions.

B horizon: i) A soil horizon that formed below an A horizon, E horizon, or O horizon, dominated by obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure and showing one or more of the following: a) illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminium, humus, carbonates, gypsum, or silica, alone or in combination; b) evidence of removal of carbonates; c) residual concentration of sesquioxides; d) coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue than the overlying or underlying horizons without apparent illuviation of iron; e) alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides, or both, that forms granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if volume changes accompany changes in moisture content; or f) brittleness. ii) A soil horizon usually beneath the a horizon that is characterized by one or more of the following: a) A concentration of silicate clays, iron and aluminium oxides, and humus, alone or in combination; b) a blocky or prismatic structure, and  c) coatings of iron and aluminium oxides that give darker, stronger or redder colour.

C horizon: i) A horizon or layer, excluding hard bedrock, that is little affected by pedogenic processes and lacks properties of O, A, E, or B horizons —note the material of C horizons may be either like or unlike that from which the solum presumably formed. ii) A mineral horizon generally beneath the soil solum that is relatively unaffected by biological activity and pedogenesis and is lacking properties diagnostic of an a horizon or a b horizon. See also Soil horizon.

Dabbling ducks: Duck species that principally feed in shallow water by “tipping up” or dabbling on the surface.
 
Damping off: i) The wilting of young seedlings by certain fungi that cause decay of stem, or roots. The major diseases of germinating seeds are grouped under the single name ‘damping off’. It is caused by a number of separate fungi, mainly species of Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Phytophthora. The disease is expressed either by the failure of seedling to emerge or by the death of the seedling shortly after emergence. Protection from this is to allow the surface of the soil to dry before doing additional watering. Sphagnum moss spread thinly over the soil surface is also effective in reducing damping off. ii) A term used to describe the action of parasitic soil fungi, which cause rotting of seedlings before or soon after germination. This can sometimes be avoided by adding sand to the soil mixture to improve drainage, thus preventing the fungi from multiplying rapidly, or by using fungicides. Eucalypts and pine species are particularly susceptible to damping off.

E horizon: A mineral soil horizon in which the main feature is loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials. 

Earth Summit: International conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 to discuss issues concerning climate change, world poverty, environment and development, the worlds forest and biodiversity.

Ecocentric value: The value of ecological entities irrespective of their usefulness to humans. 

F : Symbol for a generation; F₁ the first generation of a hybrid; F₂ the second; and so on.

F1 : The first filial generation of a cross between two individuals; parental generation (P₁) from which experiment starts.

F2 : The second filial generation of a cross between two individuals; the offspring resulting from crossing the members of the F₁ among themselves.

Flayer: The fragmentation layer in the forest floor, immediately below the litter layer, composed of fragmented, partially decomposed organic materials that are sufficiently well preserved to permit identification as to origin.

Game: A species of wildlife hunted or trapped by humans, including upland birds, waterfowl, small game, forbearing, and larger mammals that are within the purview of management.

Gamete: i) A mature sex cell, such as sperm/egg used in fertilization. A reproductive cell whose nucleus and often cytoplasm fuses with that of another gamete during fertilization resulting in the formation of a zygote. Gametes are usually differentiated into male and female gametes. ii)  A male or female reproductive cell, typically the product of meiosis, capable of uniting in the process of fertilization with one of the opposite sex.

H layer: The humus layer of the forest floor, consisting largely of well-decomposed, amorphous organic matter.
 
Habitat: i) The sum of effective environmental conditions under which an organism lives. ii) Often used for the natural range of distribution of a species. iii) The kind of place in which a plant or animal lives, such as forest habitat, grassland habitat etc. iv) The ecosystem in which a plant or animal lives and obtains food and water. v) It refers to a place or ecological community, or a set of ecological communities, in which an organism or population of organisms occurs. vi) The immediate environment occupied by an organism. vii) The natural environment of an organism excluding other living organisms (the biotope). See also Site. viii) The place or environment where an animal (or plant) naturally or normally lives and raises young.

Ideotype: A conceptual model of a plant type that will be best suited to a particular set of circumstances. Ideotypes can be defined in terms of both form and function. There can be ‘isolation’, ‘competition’ and ‘crop’ ideotypes.
Illuvial horizon: i) A soil layer in which material from above has been deposited; the layer of accumulation. ii) A soil horizon that receives material in solution or suspension from some other part of the soil. See also Eluviations.
Image: Picture or graphical representation. In remote sensing and GIS as a term that describes digital representations of earth features (TWS).

Jalshakti: It is a material (starch based polymer) which can absorb and hold 80-100 times its weight of water. It is a gel on which plant roots lock themselves and tap the water. It can be used on most soils and in all composts to promote vigorous growth and minimise plant stress. It is used by mixing with growing medium at the rate of 1-2% by weight. Plant roots attach themselves to hydrated granules of the chemical and tap their water store. Jalshakti reduces watering needs.

Jam: Concentrated fruit pulp with natural fruit flavour where pectin imparts a good set and high sugar concentration (68%) facilitates its preservation.
 
Jungle: The general Indian term for forest.

Kaolinite: An aluminosilicate mineral of the 1.1 crystal lattice group.

Ketchup: Strained concentrated extract of fruit/vegetable which is having spiced vinegar.

Keystone species: i) A species that other species depend upon for survival. ii) A species whose impacts on its community or ecosystem are large, and much larger than would be expected from its abundance. iii) A keystone species is one which has a disproportionately large impact on its ecosystem, and its presence affects many other organisms by helping determine the types and numbers of other species in the community. If a keystone species is removed the delicate balance of an ecosystem would be dramatically changed, and the ecosystem itself could collapse. Important pollinators, such as hummingbirds, bats or butterflies, can be keystone species, as so many other species are reliant on them for survival. Predators such as Jaguar, are often keystone species. Jaguars are present in very small numbers in Central and South America, but they play a critical role in keeping populations of other mammals in check. Identifying and protecting keystone species is important for the long term survival of an ecosystem.

L layer: The litter layer of the forest floor, consisting of unaltered dead remains of plants and animals.

Land : Land is a broader term than soil. In addition to soil, its attributes include other physical conditions such as mineral diposits and water supply; Location in relation centers of commerce, population, and other land; the site of the individual tracts or holdings; and existing plant cover and works of improvement.

Land capability: The suitability of land for use without damage. Land capability (as ordinarily used in the united states) is an expression of the effect of physical land conditions, including climate, on total suitability for use without damage, for crops that require regular tillage, for grazing, for woodland and for wildlife. Land capability involves consideration of the risk of land damage from erosion and from other causes and also difficulties in land use owing to physical land characteristics, including climate.

Macroclimate: The climate of a region. See also Microclimate, topoclimate.
Macronutrient: A chemical element necessary in large amounts (usually > 50 ppm in the plant) for the growth of plants. Includes c, h, o, n, p, k, ca, mg, s. ‘Macro’ refers to quantity and not to essentiality of the element. See also Micronutrient.
Maggot: Legless larva, especially of a fly.
Main effect: The response to different levels of a treatment factor, measured independently of other factors. In a balanced design such as a randomized complete block, the main effects of levels of a treatment factor are estimated by averaging the corresponding responses over all levels of every other factor.

N₂O: Nitrous Oxide.
Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA): Is represented which is a synthesised auxin.
Naphthalene ring/molecule: Two benzene rings condense to give the naphthalene molecule/ring.
Natality (birth-rate): i) It refers to the production of new individuals by birth or hatching. The natality rate is the number of young ones produced per female. ii) Refers to number of young individuals born or hatched per unit of time. iii) Refers to an organism or population of organisms that occurs naturally (i.e., independent of human activity) in an area.
Natural forest: A forest composed of indigenous trees and not classified as forest plantation. 

O horizon: A soil layer dominated by organic materials occurring at the surface of the soil. 

Oblique Aerial Photographs: An oblique photographis one which has been taken with the optical axis of the camera intentionally tilted from perpendicular position obliquely. The degree of tiltfrom the perpendicular further classifies oblique photographs into high oblique photograph and low oblique photograph. A high oblique photograph is one which is taken with the optical axis of the camera making an angle >30^° with the vertical axis and which shows the apparent horizon on the photograph.

Palatable: Having a good or at least a tolerable flavour. Some plants, although not poisonous, simply do not taste good and animals avoid them, for example, the leaves of Prosopis juliflora. Others are so highly palatable that establishing the tree can become difficult, for example, Leucaena leucocephala. Hence ‘palatability’. See also Digestibility.

Palm: Member of the aracaceae (previously palmae) family, containing over 200 genera and more than 2700 species, many of them economically important for food, fibre, canes, waxes, wood, thatch, and so forth. Typical agroforestry tree.

Qine: A character gradient. A gradual change in one or more characters between adjacent parts of a population. Such variation in a character is called “clinal variation.” See Ecotype; Race.

Quadrat: i) An ecological sampling unit of any kind. ii) A small field study unit or sample area, usually a square meter or a milliacre (1/1000th acre) in size, established for the purpose of detailed observation.

Quadrangle: A standard map size and scale used by the U.S. Geological Survey (TWS).

Quadrat, denuded: A quadrat from which the vegetation has been completely removed at least once.

R₁, R₂, R₃: The symbols used to designate first, second and third irradiation generation.

Race: i) A genetic subdivision of a species, with more or less distinct characteristics when grown in a particular environment. Sometimes used to denote a portion of a cline. Differences among races may or may not be adaptive; differences among ecotypes are presumed to be adaptive. Hence, ‘race’ is a more general term than ecotype. ii) A genetically and often geographically distinct mating group within a species; also a group of pathogens that infect a given set of plant varieties.

S₁, S₂, S₃ : The symbols used to designate the first, second/third generation of selfing. S1 is obtained by sowing seeds of so plants and so on.
Saccharometer: A type of hydrometer used for finding the concentration of sugar solutions by determining their density; usually graduated to read the percentage direct.
Safari Park: Safaris are specialized zoos where the captive animals are housed in any large naturalistic enclosures and the visitors are allowed to enter the enclosure to view the animals in a mechanized vehicle or a predetermined route from close quarters.

Table, normal yield: A standard yield table with which to compare actual yields. The values of a normal yield table are derived as averages of the best producing fully stocked areas for given species, sites, and methods of treatment.

Table, stand: A summary table showing number of trees by species and diameter class for any given area.

Table, stock: A summary table showing for any given area the volume of trees by species and diameter class.