eChapters

9.1 Introduction

The water harvested in the farm pond is a very valuable commodity. Every care should be taken so that not a single drop is wasted. The two major forms of losses in farm pond are (i) evaporation losses and (ii) seepage losses. Evaporative water loss (E_loss) and losses due to seepage are the two vital natural outflow components of unlined farm ponds. Studies conducted byGuerra et al. (1990) and Pal et al. (1994) indicated that the seepage loss from unlined ponds amounts to 45-67 per cent whereas the E_loss constitutes 30 per cent of the total out flow from the system. Water losses by evaporation and seepage were 5.3 and 9 mm day^-1, respectively amounting to 70% of total storage in the ponds (Syamsiah et al.1994).

Estimate of evaporation across the country indicates that it is as high as 2000 mm in the semi-arid tropics. Annual average value of the evaporation loss varies from 1400 to 1800 mm across major parts of the country: the value being highest in west Rajasthan, parts of Saurasthtra and Tamilnadu and lowest in coastal Mysore, Bihar plateau and east M.P. Reliable statistics reveal that about 70 M ha m of water evaporates from the water bodies and land surfaces out of the total annual precipitation of about 400 M ha m received by the country. The total evaporation losses from the water surfaces are about 5 M ha m from the total storage of 15 M ha m in the reservoirs including ponds, lakes spread all over the country (Belgaumi et al.,1997). In this section, the methods to estimate the losses like seepage and evaporation and various techniques to control them are discussed.

Lotus belongs to the Nelumbonaceae family and the genus Nelumbo. There are two species in this genus; Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. distributed in Asia and Oceania, and Nelumbo lutea distributed in North and South America (Qichao and Xingyan, 2005). Although, the species nucifera is the most important (commercially and culturally), it is critical to describe the American species, evaluate its horticultural value and its potential as a source of genetic diversity. The American species, represented by Nelumbo lutea (Syn. N. pentapetala or Nelumbium luteum) is known as American Lotus, Water-chinquapin and Yellow Lotus (Sayre, 2004) and is native to the eastern and central portions of the US ranging from Maine to Wisconsin and in the south from Florida to Texas. It is one of the most spectacular and graceful aquatics among all the native plants of India. N. indica are found all over India and extend as far as Kashmir to Kanyakumari exhibiting enormous thermoplasticity and phenotypic diversity with a large number of racial variants with different shapes, sizes and colours. First Indian fossilised record of N. nucifera has been reported from the Pleistocene epoch of Kashmir. The presence of Nelumbo in the Tertiary period of Assam is reported on the basis of impressions of leaves and rhizomes found in the collection from Eocene bed near Damalgiri. These records confirm the evidence in support of the view that N. nucifera is indigenous to India.

Lotus belongs to the Nelumbonaceae family and the genus Nelumbo. There are two species in this genus; Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. distributed in Asia and Oceania, and Nelumbo lutea distributed in North and South America (Qichao and Xingyan, 2005). Although, the species nucifera is the most important (commercially and culturally), it is critical to describe the American species, evaluate its horticultural value and its potential as a source of genetic diversity. The American species, represented by Nelumbo lutea (Syn. N. pentapetala or Nelumbium luteum) is known as American Lotus, Water-chinquapin and Yellow Lotus (Sayre, 2004) and is native to the eastern and central portions of the US ranging from Maine to Wisconsin and in the south from Florida to Texas. It is one of the most spectacular and graceful aquatics among all the native plants of India. N. indica are found all over India and extend as far as Kashmir to Kanyakumari exhibiting enormous thermoplasticity and phenotypic diversity with a large number of racial variants with different shapes, sizes and colours. First Indian fossilised record of N. nucifera has been reported from the Pleistocene epoch of Kashmir. The presence of Nelumbo in the Tertiary period of Assam is reported on the basis of impressions of leaves and rhizomes found in the collection from Eocene bed near Damalgiri. These records confirm the evidence in support of the view that N. nucifera is indigenous to India.

Lotus has good fragrance. About seventy compounds were identified with hydrocarbons representing > 75% of the extract. 1, 4 – Dimethoxy benzene, 10, 8 – Cineole, ferpinen – 4al and linalool were important constituents characterization of the scent of lotus flower (Omata et al., 1991).

INTRODUCTION

Lotus is the foremost symbol of beauty, prosperity and fertility. According to Hinduism, within each human inhabiting the earth is spirit of sacred lotus. It represents eternity, purity and divinity and is widely used as a symbol of life, fertility, ever-renewing youth and to describe feminine beauty especially the eyes. Egyptians considered it a symbol of rebirth, since it closes in the evening and falls to the water, then reopening again in the morning, thus emulating the behavior of the sun. All lotuses are day-bloomers that open early in morning and close by mid afternoon for three successive days, with first flower closing earlier. It possesses an amazing ability to flourish in a variety of environment ranging from clear ponds to muddy marshes. The exquisite flowers with long herbaceous stalk arise from the rhizomatous stems and a flat and peculiar seedcase at its center.

Lotus, the national flower of India, has been a part of Indian culture, religion and history from ancient times. It is considered sacred not only by the Hindus of India but also by the Buddhists of China and Japan. To early Egyptians, a lotus bud or Sesen was a symbol of rebirth. Lotus is offered to Goddess Lakshmi and is considered as her symbol. Besides, lotus has found place in one of the postage stamps in India. Every year some prestigious awards are given to the distinguished personalities of the country like Padmashree, Padmabhushan, Padmavibhushan and Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus).

Abstract: Lotus, aquatic economic flower, associated with religion, art, and culture, is native to India. Most cultivars are diploid, seed and vegetatively propagated. Lotus is cross pollinated and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Low seed set often pose significant challenge to breeders. Breeding efficiency remains unknown. Flower breeders have created new colours with interspecific hybridization including yellow, pink, white and rose colour changing to creamy yellow. Traits of interest for crop transformation include environmental adaptation to stressful condition, low seed tannin, and flowering (colour, size, timing, etc.). Genetics of characters is unknown. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed for further transformation of this crop.

Lotus being a national flower of India, is closely associated with religion and culture. It is a perennial, aquatic crop that is grown and consumed throughout Asia. The edible parts of lotus are Leaves, flowers, seeds and rhizomes, and the flowers are also used in religious ceremonies. Lotus flowers are also, used for extraction of perfumes. It is one of the oldest plants in the world Archaeologists in China found Lotus seeds with estimated ages of 5,000 years in 1972 in Yunnan Provincelagoons.

During the pre-historic period, the South India Dravidians used lotus flowers (pundarika) as their food, much earlier than the people of the Indus Valley civilization (3000-2000 BC). However, there is no evidence of lotus being present during the Indus Valley culture of the Mohenjo Daro and Harappa period in northern India. The Rigveda reference that lotus was made by the Aryans (2000-1500 BC) wherein it is also mention that lotus can be used as food. Subsequently, lotus was mentioned in the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Slokas, plays and other ancient Sanskrit literature. The lotus symbol is not only mentioned in the scriptures of Hinduism but it also occurs in the Buddhist and Jainism literature.

In the Arthasastra (350-300 BC) by Kautilya, the great diplomat during the golden age of Chandra Gupta, it is recorded that one of the varieties of sandal wood possesses the fragrance of lotus. The Mughal kings were also attracted towards the beauty of lotus. While describing Agra, the Mughal king Jehangir (1605-1627 AD) in his memories Tuzuk-i-Jehangiri, mentioned a memorable scene of a tank full of exquisite red lotus flowers, the like of which he had not seen before.

Lotus is an important aquatic flowering plant with exceptional cultural, religious, ornamental and commercial significance in India. Its flowers are extensively used in worship, religious ceremonies, decoration and traditional floral practices. The chapter introduces lotus and discusses its botanical characteristics, origin, distribution, genetics and important varieties. It explains the environmental conditions required for successful cultivation, including suitable water, soil and climatic conditions. Propagation, pond or field preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and routine cultural practices are described for commercial production. The chapter also covers pest and disease management, harvesting of flowers, postharvest handling, yield and potential uses, providing practical information for growers and students of floriculture.

Most backaches seem to begin while bending forward to pick up some object from the floor. The pain usually comes on suddenly without warning, and it may be very difficult to straighten up to a standing position again. In most cases it is felt either in the middle of the back or lower down on one side. If a spinal disc is involved, the pain may radiate down the thigh and leg along the sciatic nerve on that side. The most common cause of backache probably arises from failure to get enough exercise to keep the muscles of the back strong and healthy. Flabby muscles then produce a wobbly spine, followed by pain, spasm and misery especially if a disc is ruptured.

Low blood pressure or hypotension is far less common than hypertension or high blood pressure. Sometimes the pressure falls rapidly because of hemorrhage or loss of blood. Low blood pressure may also come on gradually because of slow bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract or through the kidneys or bladder.

Any lack of normal protein in the diet may also lower the pressure because of malnutrition or actual starvation or because of some endocrine disturbance, such as hypothyroidism. In rare cases an islet cell tumor may form in the pancreas producing an excessive amount of insulin and lowering the blood sugar level. Such patients always tend to feel tired and worn out.

Emotional problems are a far more frequent cause of low blood pressure. For instance, some people will fall into a dead faint on hearing bad news. This shock like state is probably brought on by temporary disturbance in the vasomotor system, causing the patient to collapse. To a lesser degree, prolonged disappointment and frustration may also result in a subnormal blood pressure. Relieving the chronic stress of mind may be all that is needed to bring the blood pressure back to normal. One should also add a little more protein to the diet, and be sure to take sufficient rest and exercise.

Homoeopathic treatment for low blood pressure is given below:

1. INTRODUCTION

According to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (1968) food is “an article that provides taste, aroma or nutritive value”. The term 'health food' is generally used to describe foods that are considered to be beneficial to health beyond a normal diet required for human nutrition. Though, the term is not precisely defined by any regulatory agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) however, “Health food” is sometimes used as an umbrella term encompassing natural foods, organic foods, whole foods, and sometimes dietary supplements or may also refer to functional foods. The use of foods for promoting health and relieving symptoms is as old as the practice of phyto-medicine for treating or preventing various types of illness and have been documented in Hippocratic and Vedic texts and the canons of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Therefore, “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”, quoted by Hippocrates about 2,500 years ago, is certainly the tenet of today which is receiving overwhelming interest. In the recent years, rapid urbanization, industrialization, increase in per capita income etc. in developing countries like India, have resulted in dramatic lifestyle changes leading to lifestyle related diseases like coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer and hypertension. The transition from a traditional to modern lifestyle, consumption of diets rich in fat and calories combined with a high level of mental stress has compounded the problem further.

India produces all deciduous fruits including pome fruits (apple and pear) and stone fruits (peach, plum, apricot and cherry) in considerable quantity. These are mainly grown in the North-Western Indian States of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), Himachal Pradesh (H.P.), Uttarakhand and in Uttar Pradesh. The North-Eastern Hills region, comprising of the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur and Sikkim also grow some of the deciduous fruits on a limited scale. The sub tropical region lies between 150 and 300 north of equator covering North Indian plains, the gangetic basin, large parts of North eastern state, western ghats, nilgiri regions etc. In this zone spring is generally frost free and chilling availability ranges from 50-500 hours. This region is not considered proper for temperate fruit growing but grows several low chilling varieties of peach, plum, pear etc. Deciduous fruits, such as peach and nectarine, require accumulated exposure to cool temperatures during winter dormancy for bud break and the resumption of normal growth the following spring. Minimum amount of accumulated cool temperature exposure needed for normal growth, which varies by cultivars, is referred to as the chilling requirement. Due to introduction and adaptation of low chilling cultivars of peach, plum and pear, they are also now being grown commercially in certain areas of the north Indian plains.

The nutritional richness and the high biological value of dairy milk have made it an important constituent of the balanced human diet. It is associated with better growth, improved status of some micronutrients, cognitive performance, motor development and activity. It is composed of a mixture of nutritive components as well as other bioactive factors such as biogenic amines, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), with relevant physiological benefits. The consumption of dairy milk and products exert a protective action in human health and have been confirmed in preventing several chronic conditions like cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), some forms of cancer, obesity, immunomodulation and diabetes (Pereira, 2014). The chemical composition of bovine milk consists of 87% water, 4% to 5% lactose, 3% protein, 3% to 4% fat, 0.8% minerals, and 0.1% vitamins (Pereira, 2014).

1. Composition of Milk Fat

Bovine milk contains about 3.5 to 5% total lipid, existing as emulsified globules 2 to 4 μm in diameter and coated with a membrane, casein. The composition of milk fat is somewhat complex. Triglycerides constitute approximately 98% of milk fat, which is found in the milk globule, with the remainder being made up of di- and monoglycerides, phospholipids, cerebrosides, cholesterol, vitamins, tocopherols, carotene, and flavor components. Phospholipids are about 0.5 to 1% of total lipids, and sterols are 0.2 to 0.5%. These are mostly located in the milk fat globule membrane (Jensen et al., 1991). Cholesterol is the major sterol at 10 to 20 mg/dL.

Drip system has great promise for efficient utilization of available irrigation water. In our country and elsewhere in the world the scientists are unanimously agreed to adopt drip irrigation method for higher application efficiency and thereby better use of scarce irrigation water. Saksena (1993) reported water losses of only 1-2% in drip irrigation in comparison to 6-9% in sprinkler and 30-35% in surface irrigation method. However, very small area compared to other methods of irrigation so far is irrigated by drip system in our country. Up to 2000 the total area under drip irrigation was 2,59,600 ha in India (Alam & Kumar, 2000). Initial high investment for drip network and pumping system, of course, are discouraging to the most of our farmers. Sharma & Abrol (1993) mentioned that in spite of the very encouraging results and attractive subsidies offered by the Govt. of India, the adoption of the drip irrigation system has not picked up to the expected level. Along with the other reasons they pointed out the high initial cost of the system and lack of research effort on developing cost-effective design suited to local condition are responsible for non-practice of drip irrigation at a considerable scale.

Some research works has been conducted to find out low cost method of drip irrigation. Biswas (1998) developed a manually operated drip irrigation system made of bamboo mains, laterals and sub-laterals. The system and its performance are described below.

Drip Network

The main and laterals of the drip network were made of hollow bamboo pieces each of 3m lengths with 7.5cm and 4.0cm diameter respectively. The sub lateral or the emitters were the bamboo twigs of 0.25cm inside diameter and 1.05-1.10m length to suit the spacing between the plant rows. The mains and laterals were made for the required length in the field by jointing together the sections one after another (Fig. 7.1). The ends of two sections, which contact each other, were made such that one section easily gets inside the other for about 10-15cm.

Farmers’ data collection can be a valuable input for the development of agrometeorological advisories because it provides a unique perspective on the local weather and climate conditions that affect their crops and farming practices. Farmers have a deep understanding of the local environment and are often able to observe subtle changes in weather patterns and soil conditions that may not be captured by traditional meteorological instruments. By collecting data on weather patterns, soil moisture, crop growth, and other factors, farmers can provide valuable insights into the complex relationships between weather, climate, and agriculture. This data can be used to improve the accuracy and relevance of agrometeorological advisories, which are critical for helping farmers make informed decisions about planting, irrigation, pest management, and other aspects of crop management. By incorporating farmers’ data into the development of these advisories, researchers and policymakers can create more effective and targeted recommendations that take into account the specific needs and conditions of local farming communities. Furthermore, the collection of farmers’ data can also help to identify gaps in existing meteorological data and provide insights into the impacts of climate change on local agriculture. This information can be used to inform the development of more effective climate adaptation strategies and to support the creation of more resilient and sustainable agricultural systems.
In addition, the involvement of farmers in data collection can also help to build trust and promote the adoption of agrometeorological advisories. By working closely with farmers and incorporating their knowledge and expertise into the development of these advisories, researchers and policymakers can create more effective and sustainable solutions that meet the needs of local farming communities. Overall, the collection of farmers’ data can provide a valuable input for the development of agrometeorological advisories, helping to create more effective, targeted, and sustainable solutions that support the needs of local farming.
5.1 Low Cost Instrumentation
The use of low-cost instrumentation in agriculture is essential for enabling farmers to collect accurate and reliable data on various parameters that affect crop growth, soil health, and farm management. In many developing countries, smallholder farmers lack access to expensive and sophisticated equipment, making it difficult for them to make informed decisions about their farming practices

Abstract

In this investigation the low dose effects of pesticides were analyzed both in vitro and in vivo in peripheral blood samples from healthy donors and also in farmers occupationally exposed to pesticides. In vitro studies were conducted to assess the toxicity caused by commonly used pesticides like monocrotophos, profenofos, chlorpyriphos, endosulfan, acephate on lymphocytes from peripheral blood samples. In almost all experiments we could determine chromosomal aberrations and DNA damage at 1/10th of LC50 dosage of the pesticides. For analyzing the in vivo effects, epidemiological studies were conducted in pesticide exposed agricultural workers. The 200 exposed volunteers suffered from fever, nausea, headache and other abnormal symptoms and visited the hospital for general health check-up. These cases were taken up for more detailed studies. Five of them (2.5%) showed decrease in RBC, haemoglobin, and increase in WBC with a large number of immature cells. These volunteers were further diagnosed as Philadelphia negative Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) cases based on clinical and pathological examinations. In similar environs, about 3% of the exposed children showed signs of mental retardation and delayed milestones. It is therefore, concluded that clinical evaluations supported by occupational epidemiology could determine CML in exposed individuals (adults). At low doses we have traced the effect of pesticides at molecular level.

Low external input agriculture developed as a concept in the 1980s, gaining ground with the establishment of the Information Centre for Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture in 1984 (Kessler and Moolhuijzen, 1994). Low external input agriculture developed as a response to the criticisms surrounding Green Revolution technology being neither sustainable nor feasible for many small-scale farmers around the world.

Low external input agriculture developed as a response to the criticisms surrounding Green Revolution technology being neither sustainable nor feasible for many small-scale farmers around the world. The concept aimed to redesign the agricultural system by optimising the use of biological resources, keeping changes to the natural ecosystem as well as the use of external inputs at a minimum (Pimentel et al., 1989).

Introduction

Feed is the main contributor to economic and environmental costs of poultry production. This applies in particular to the protein fraction of the diet as the protein constitutes the second abundant and the most expensive nutrient in the broiler diets. Quantitatively, protein rich feed sources constitute 25 to 40 per cent of the diets, next to cereal grains as energy sources accounting for 60 to 70 per cent. In terms of input cost, protein sources account for 40 to 50 per cent of feed cost as these ingredients are highly expensive and play a major role in determining the cost of broiler production.

Maintaining the quality of fish begins with harvest and carries through the harvest-to- consumption chain. Careful handling of fish and shellfish while harvesting and during transport to the processing plant is critical if the high quality of the product is to be maintained. There are, however, several constraints on handling the fish; the important among them are the bacteriological, chemical and physical processes that cause degradation of fish. The surface of dead fish is an ideal growth habitat for bacteria and the end result of such activity is spoiled fish. Reduction of temperature can prevent the growth of many bacteria that cause the spoilage. Chemical breakdown due to oxidative and enzymatic reactions can lead to off odours and flavours and rancidity. Digestive enzymes can initiate decomposition in the dead fish. Physical factors can enhance the bacteriological or chemical processes: bruising, tearing, cutting etc. can expose fish muscle to more rapid bacteriological growth, cause internal bleeding which darkens the fillets and expose greater surface area for chemical oxidation.

Since fish is a highly perishable item of food, it has to be immediately processed to various products to preserve the quality and to increase the shelf life. Fish requires proper handling and preservation to increase its shelf life and retain its quality and nutritional attributes. The objective of handling, processing and preservation is to control or reduce the spoilage process so that the final product is wholesome and safe for the consumer. Fish and fishery products brought to market in a well-preserved condition will generally command higher prices, both at wholesale and retail levels, and thus give better returns to the fishing operation.

Low temperature preservation by chilling and freezing methods are widely practiced to maintain the quality and freshness of fish and fish products. Chilled storage method, i.e., keeping the fish in the unfrozen condition has only limited shelf life and it will vary between 4 and 20 days depending on the condition and species of fish. In frozen storage also the shelf life is restricted but it varies from few weeks to years. The various factors that affect the frozen storage shelf lives are condition of fish at the time of catch, handling, processing and product development, packaging and glazing of the product, freezing method adopted, frozen storage temperature, stacking methods and transportation techniques. These factors can be put together and can be termed as ‘Product, Processing and Packaging’ (PPP) and ‘Time Temperature Tolerance’ factors (TTT).

INTRODUCTION

Food is the basic need of human beings. It gets spoiled primarily due to microorganisms and enzymes. Energy is required for microbial growth and enzymatic reactions. At low temperature, the rate of biochemical reactions is slow resulting in prolonged storage life of food. It must have been observed long back that food could be stored for longer period without deterioration during the winter months. Since then this principle is being used to extend the storage life of foods. A sea change can be observed in development of low temperature preservation technology. It has travelled a long journey to reach this stage; however, a major break through took place in twentieth century. Low temperature technology is of two types; refrigeration and freezing. In refrigeration storage, water is in liquid phase and temperature is maintained above freezing point. In freezing technology, the food is stored below freezing point and water gets converted into ice. The former is short term preservation due to slow growth of microbes and lower enzymatic activity while the later is long time preservation due to inactivation of enzymes during blanching and inhibition of microbial activity due to unavailability of free water and much lower temperature. Low temperature preservation is widely accepted and is of commercially important in food supply chain.

Freezing : Freezing is a process where temperature of food (fruits, vegetable etc.) is lowered down considerably below freezing point so that the water present inside the food undergoes change in state from liquid to solid (ice) and gets frozen immediately eg Frozen Pea. Water is immobilized and solutes are concentrated to reduce the water activity.

Principles of preservation : Combination of low temperature, low water activity, and pre-treatments like blanching, dipping in sugar syrup etc. stop (reduce) the growth and activity of microorganisms.

Theory of freezing : Freezing takes place in two main steps

The term “low-maintenance” refers to a plant that does not require frequent maintenance such as regular watering, pruning, or spraying to remain healthy and to maintain an acceptable aesthetic quality. A low-maintenance plant has low fertilizer requirements and few pest and disease problems. In addition, low-maintenance plants suitable for India must also be adapted to or at least tolerate our poor, alkaline, sand or limestone-based soils. Both native and non-native species are included herein. Also, a variety of plants that are not commonly available in Indian nurseries or garden centres were intentionally included with the hope that increased demand will generate increased supply. Putting the right plant in the right place is of foremost importance in creating a healthy and successful low-maintenance landscape. However, this principle is dependent upon one’s ability to accurately select the right plant species for a given location. Common names are often misleading and sometimes more than one plant species may be referred to by the same or similar common name.

Low-temperature preservation is one of the most widely used physical approaches for extending food shelf life without seriously affecting quality. Reducing storage temperature slows microbial multiplication, enzyme activity and chemical deterioration, with inhibition increasing as temperature declines. Refrigeration maintains food above its freezing point, while freezing reduces temperature below zero and converts available water into ice. The chapter examines conventional refrigeration, advanced chilling, freezing, cryopreservation, superchilling and the influence of ice crystallisation on food quality. It explains how temperature, cooling rate and crystal size affect texture, nutritional retention and storage stability, while also addressing the limitations and quality changes associated with prolonged low-temperature storage.

DEFINITION

Lower level fracture in animals include any fracture of the region from knee joint to foot in forelimb and from hock joint to foot in hind iimbs.

CFERA’nVE PROCEOURE-H ere the principle of treatmient is application of cast and conjoint metal ‘U’ plate over the fractured site. Permanent immobilization of the limb should be done only after 7 days to subside.

Length to be covered-Forelimb-above knee joint and below foot. Hind limb-above hock joint and below foot, (as shown in fig.1)

Padding-6-12 layer thick padded cloth should be vmapped applying gum.s throughout the doth area, over the fracture, it should not be too tight but it should be strong. Sloughing off the hoof may result due to hypostatic congestion; hence the hooves should not be left open. (Cotton pad as shown in fig.2)

Fracture of meta-carpals and meta-tarsals comes under lower level fracture. Padded cloth and netted bamboo splint along with conjoint U plate has been considered as standard method of repair.

The fractufe is a lower level fracture involving the meta-carpal and meta- tarsal bones. (Fig.1 & Fig.2)

The fracture site is immobilized extending joint below and joint above level initially with cloth or cotton padding.(Fig.3)

Netted bamboo splint Is applied over it for support involving joint above and joint below which should not be too tight or too loose.(Flg.4)

Splints are retained in position by thread with knots. The ends of bamboo splint kept padded to avoid skin damage.(Fig.4)

More strength is given to immobilisation by application of conjoint U- plate.Conjoint U-plate is a U shaped metallic plate used for lower level fracture immobilisation. (Fig.5 & Fig.6)

At the end the entire bandage is covered with cloth or a bandage roll.The hoof should also be bandaged to avoid damage due to improper blood circulation.(Flg.6)

Lozenges are solid preparations that contain one or more medicaments, usually in a flavored, sweetened base, that are intended to dissolve or disintegrate slowly in the mouth. They can be prepared by molding (gelatin and/or fused sucrose and sorbitol base) or by compression of sugar-based tablets. Molded lozenges are sometimes referred to as pastilles, whereas compressed lozenges may be referred to as troches. They are used for patients who cannot swallow solid oral dosage forms well as for medications designed to be released slowly to yield a constant level of drug in the oral cavity or to bathe the throat tissues in a solution of the drug. Lozenges historically have been used for the relief of minor sore throat pain and irritation and have been used extensively to deliver topical anaesthetics and antibacterial.

Advantages

1. It is easy to administer to both paediatric and geriatric patients.
2. It has a pleasant taste and will extend the time a quantity of drug remains in the oral cavity to elicit local activity.

INTRODUCTION
The lubrication system in an engine plays a critical role in maintaining the smooth operation of its components. It serves to create a barrier between two surfaces that are in contact and moving against each other, reducing the friction that would otherwise lead to wear and tear. To understand the importance of lubrication, consider the effect of friction when two surfaces rub together; much like when rubbing your hands, friction generates heat, which over time can cause damage, such as burns to the skin. In the context of an internal combustion (IC) engine, friction between its moving parts can result in similar consequences, including excessive wear, heat buildup, and power loss, which ultimately impair engine efficiency and longevity.
The internal combustion engine consists of various moving components that are subject to constant friction as they operate. The pistons, crankshaft, camshaft, and valve mechanisms all move at high speeds within confined spaces, leading to the gradual wearing away of metal surfaces. Without proper lubrication, this friction would not only damage the engine’s components but also result in overheating and a significant reduction in the engine’s performance. The heat generated by this friction can increase the risk of engine failure, as it can lead to parts seizing or warping under high temperatures.
To combat these issues, the lubrication system is designed to reduce friction, dissipate heat, and protect the moving parts from wear. It ensures that a thin film of lubricant is constantly supplied to critical areas of the engine, forming a protective layer between metal surfaces. This helps to minimize direct contact between the moving components, thereby reducing friction and preventing unnecessary wear.
Moreover, lubrication contributes to cooling the engine by carrying heat away from the friction zones and dispersing it throughout the engine system.

Origin is generally accepted that the genetic/evolutionary origin of lucerne is in the near east center of Vavilof and that the species developed in Asia Minor, Iran and the highlands of Turkmenistan. All these areas have cold winters and hot dry summers. The soil is well drained with an approximately neutral pH and has subsoils with deposits of calcium (lime). Sinskaya, a Russian, asserts that lucerne originated in two areas and that there was a second development in central Asia.

Luxation/Dislocation : It refers to the displacement of opposing articular surfaces of bone. The direction of displacement is described with reference to the distal bone in relation to the proximal bone.

Subluxation : It refers to partial or incomplete dislocation.

Classification
    1.    Acute : Recent occurrence of luxation.
    2.    Chronic : Luxation existing for a long time.
    3.    Recurrent : Reluxation after correction.
    4.    Simple : No open wound is communicating with the joint.
    5.    Compound : Open wound is communicating with the joint.
    6.    Pathological : Dislocation due to any pathological lesion.

The word LYCOPODIUM is derived from LUCOS meaning wolf and PES meaning the foot, as the shoots has an appearance of the wolfs foot. CLAVATUM derived from Latin word CLAVATUS meaning club-like.

This drug is inert until the spores are crushed. Its wonderful medicinal properties are only disclosed by trituration and succussion. In nearly all cases where Lycopodium is the remedy, some evidence of urinary or digestive disturbance will be found. Lycopodium is adapted more especially to ailments gradually developing functional powers, where the function of the liver is seriously disturbed. Atony. Malnutrition. Mild temperaments of lymphatic constitution, with catarrhal tendencies; older persons, where the skin shows yellowish spots, earthy complexion, uric acid diathesis, etc.; also precocious, weak children. Symptoms characteristically run from right to left, act especially on right side of body, and are worse from 4 to 8 PM.

Lycopodium is most useful in troubles relating to digestion. These troubles arise from the consumption of food, which ferments in the digestive system. That is why Lycopodium relieves a bloated and full abdomen wherein the wind is pressing downwards.

Lymph vessels arise from mesoderm by vasculogenesis and angiogenesis in common with the arteries and veins. Initially six primary lymph sacs develop in the late embryonic period. They are paired jugular sacs lateral to the internal jugular veins, a single retroperitoneal sac developing close to the root of the mesentry, the cisterna chyli dorsal to the retroperitoneal sac and a pair of iliac sacs at the junction of the iliac veins.

Lymphatic vessels draining the head, neck and fore limbs arise from jugular sacs. Drainage of lymph from the pelvic region and hind limbs is through the iliac sacs, while the retroperitoneal sac and cisterna chyli drain the viscera. At a later stage of lymphatic development, the lymph sacs become interconnected by a series of lymphatic vessels.The plexus between the jugular sacs and the cisterna chyli gives rise to the thoracic duct which opens into the jugular veins.

lymphatic organs : The lymphatic organs are fully developed and functional before birth. Immunocompetent cells can be detected in most lymphatic organs by the end of the second trimester of gestation.

lymphnodes : The lymphnodes are formed by the partitioning of small lymph vessels or sacs. Therefore, lymphnodes are usually found in related groups or in chains along the course of a lymph vessel. The partitioning is initiated by the ingrowth of mesenchymal processes into the lymph vessel. The mesenchyme forms a network of lymph sinusoids that communicate with the lumen of the lymph vessel. The mesenchyme also forms a reticular fiber frame work that outlines and supports the sinusoidal network. At this time a blood vessel enters the developing lymphnode. The point of entrance establishes the location of the hilus. At the periphery of the node the mesenchyme condenses to form a capsule. The mammalian lymphnodes consists of cortical and medullary regions. The cortical parenchyma contains lymphnodules, while the central medullary region contains anastomosing cords of lymphoid tissue. The structure of the porcine lymphnode differs from other domestic animals in that the lymphnodules are centrally located with the cords at the periphery. The flow of lymph in the porcine lymphnode is in the opposite direction to that in other domestic animals, with lymph entering at the hilus and leaving from the cortex.

The lymphatic system is a part of circulatory system and a vital part of the body’s immune system. It is comprised of lymph vessels, lymph ducts, and lymph nodes that move the lymph from tissues to the blood stream and the organs such as the spleen, thymus and bone marrow that produce the lymphocytes and white blood cells. Lymph is very similar to blood plasma. During circulation through the body, the blood reaches to the capillaries at the interstitial spaces. The plasma of the blood is filtered through the capillary wall. The fresh oxygen along with nutrients, hormones and other necessary fluid matters from this plasma are released in to the interstitial fluid and about 85 per cent of the plasma along with the carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes, return into the circulation through the capillary walls. The remaining 15 per cent of the plasma along with the debris of other waste products and the lymphocytes constitutes the lymph which is returned to the circulation through an accessory route of lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes constituting the lymphatic system.

Lymph Vessels: The lymph vessels start as finger-like blind ending thin walled lymph capillaries in the interstitial connective tissue. These capillaries form a network and drain into the thicker walled collecting lymph vessels, lymph ducts and lymphatic trunks. Finally the larger lymph trunks and ducts empty their content the lymph into the cranial vena cava at the thoracic inlet. The lymph vessels contain numerous valves with one or two leaflets preventing the back flow of lymph through the lymph vessels. During its course in a centripetal direction through the lymph vessel, the lymph of each lymph vessel has to pass through at least one lymph node prior to its entry into the blood circulation. As a result there lies a chain of lymph nodes on the pathway of lymph vessels in the body.

The lymph from the fore limb is collected and carried into the circulation through two main lymph nodes, the prescapular and the axillary lymph nodes. There may be two more lymph nodes in fore limb but those are inconsistent and only occasionally found in ox. These include the accessory axillary lymph node and infraspinous lymph nodes and their afferents are mostly from the thoracic wall.

The lymphatics of the head and neck region is comprised of the lymph nodes and the lymph ducts. The lymph nodes of the head are the parotid, pterygoid, mandibular, the lateral and medial retropharyngeal, and the rostral and caudal hyoid. The lymph nodes in the cervical region are the superficial and accessory superficial, cranial, middle and caudal deep cervical and the costocervical and subrhomboidal lymph nodes. The lymph from these lymph nodes is finally collected and carried to the common jugular vein by the tracheal and right lymphatic ducts.

Lymph nodes of head

Parotid lymph node

The parotid lymph node is large and elongated gland usually single but sometimes two small glands connected closely with each other by a fibrous tissue lying on the upper part of the lateral surface in the caudal half of the masseter muscle. It is ventral to the temporomandibular joint, partly or completely covered by the dorsal part of the parotid salivary gland and is situated lateral to the maxillary vessels and nerve. The afferent lymph vessels are received to this gland (node) from the muscles of head, ocular and auricular muscles, the parotid salivary gland, the gums, lips, appendages of the eye, ear, lacrimal gland, and from the bones of the head such as frontal, malar, nasal, maxilla, incisive, turbinate, mandible etc. The afferent from the parotid lymph node joins the tracheal duct of the corresponding side.

The lymphatics of hind limb is comprised of four lymph nodes namely the deep inguinal, epigastric, coxal and popliteal lymph nodes and the afferents and efferent ducts joining and leaving these lymph nodes.

Deep inguinal lymph node

The deep inguinal lymph node is located in the region of deep femoral artery near the origin of the caudal epigastric and the pudic branches from it. The lymph node receives afferents from the muscles in the prepubic and the thigh regions. The efferent vessel from this lymph node joins and opens in the medial iliac lymph node.

Epigastric lymph node

The epigastric lymph node is inconstant. When present, it is located on the course of the caudal epigastric artery near the pubis on the medial surface of the rectus abdominis muscle. The afferents for this lymph node are received from the abdominal muscles and the peritoneum in the vicinity. The efferent vessel of this lymph node joins the medial iliac lymph node.

The lymph nodes of the abdomen and pelvis are in two major divisions, lymph nodes of the wall of the abdomen and pelvis and those of the viscera of abdomen and pelvis. The lymph from all the lymph nodes is collected by different lymph ducts which carry and pour their contents (lymph) in the cisterna chyli near the hiatus aorticus on the abdominal surface of the diaphragm.

Lymph nodes of the wall of abdomen and pelvis

The lumbar aortic lymph nodes are a chain of small lymph nodes situated along the caudal part of the abdominal aorta. These lymph nodes receive afferents from the peritoneum, sublumbar, spinal and abdominal muscles and the lumbar vertebrae. The efferents from these lymph nodes join each other and form two lumbar trunks which later on unite in a single lumbar lymphatic trunk that opens into the cisterna chyli.

The medial iliac lymph nodes are situated near the origins of the deep circumflex iliac and the internal external iliac arteries. The afferents for these lymph nodes are received from the internal iliac, tuberal, gluteal coxal, lateral iliac, subiliac, superficial inguinal and popliteal lymph nodes. The efferents from these lymph nodes either form a lumbar trunk or join any of the lumbar aortic lymph nodes.

The lymphatics of the thoracic region are comprised of large number of lymph nodes which are arranged in different groups like the aortic, sternal, mediastinal and bronchial. The efferent ducts from these lymph nodes ultimately join the thoracic duct which carries lymph from all over the body except the head neck and fore limb to open in the cranial venacava.

Thoracic aortic and sternal lymph nodes

The lymphatics of the thoracic and sternal region is comprised of thoracic aortic, intercostal, cranial and caudal sternal, and the xiphoid lymph nodes and the thoracic duct which conducts the lymph collected from most of the parts of the body except the head, neck and fore limbs.

The thoracic aortic lymph nodes are located along the dorsolateral border of the aorta, ventral to the sympathetic trunk. The afferents for these lymph nodes are received from the muscles of thoracic wall, diaphragm, pleural and pericardial sacs and the intercostal lymph nodes. The efferents from the thoracic aortic lymph nodes are connected to the thoracic duct either directly or through other lymph nodes of the thoracic cavity.

Macromolecule: A molecule having molecular weight ranging from few thousand to millions.

Macronutrients: The essential elements which are required by plants in comparatively large amounts are called as major elements or macro nutrients. Examples: C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg. In this C, H, O, N, P, K are called primary elements and Ca, S, Mg are called as secondary elements.

Malate shuttle: A mechanism of transferring reducing equivalent of cytosolic NADH in the form of malate across the inner mitochondrial membrane by a specific ketoglutarate malate transporter for oxidation through electron transport chain in little animal tissue like heart muscle.

Malic enzyme: An enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of malate to pyruvate and carbondioxide.

Magnolia aquilfolium (Pursh.) Nutt. cv. Orange Flame (Magnoliaceae) [NI]. An open suckering erect shrub. Leaves ovate to elliptic, spinytoothed, leaflets dark-green changing in colors during seasons. Flowers are yellow borne in densely clustered racemes in late March to mid April.

Matching: The matching is a technique that is used to form two groups of subjects to set up an experiment–control study to test the effectiveness of a treatment. From a pool of subjects, two subjects with identical predetermined attributes, characteristics or conditions are matched and then randomly placed in either the experimental or control group.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 396).

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 397).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 398).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macroglobulin: A highly polymerized globulin of high molecular weight.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

Macaroni: Thick hollow tubes of pasta which are usually short and curved.
Macaroons: Small chewy cakes or cookies made from ground almonds/almond paste or coconut, sugar and egg whites. It is ften baked on rice paper.
Maceration: Softening or breaking up of foods by soaking in a liquid, or the soaking of foods (usually fruits) in a liquid in order to absorb the flavour. Spirits or liqueurs are often used as the macerating liquid.
Machine vision: Inspection systems in which samples are examined using a camera, the image from which is analysed by computer using image processing algorithms. Operations which can be performed include defect detection, dimensions measurement, orientation detection, grading, sorting and counting.
Magnesium (Mg): One of the essential mineral nutrients which is widely distributed in plant and animal foods, good sources including fruits, vegetables and dairy products. Standard Western diets generally contain adequate levels of magnesium, so fortification is largely unnecessary. Absorption of dietary magnesium may be affected by other dietary nutrients such as calcium, phosphate and vitamin D, and also by some clinical conditions, including alcoholism and diabetes. Magnesium is an important bone constituent and intracellular inorganic cation acting as an essential cofactor in many enzymic reactions. Magnesium deficiency can cause calcification of soft tissues, electrolyte imbalances, gastrointestinal symptoms and personality changes. If taken in excess, magnesium toxicity symptoms can include nausea, vomiting, hypotension and neurological changes.

M13 is a single stranded filamentous DNA phage. Vectors have been developed from M13 phase by Joachim Messing (1983), which are suitable for preparation of single stranded DNA required for sequencing by Sanger’s method. These are derivatives of M13 wild type (size 6.407 kb).

Genus   : Macadamia
Species : integrifolia Maiden and Betch
Family : Protaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n =28

Macadamia nut is known as ‘Australian Nut’ or ‘Queensland Nut’ because of its origin in the rainforests of New South Wales and Queensland. The crop is sensitive to frost hence the site which suits orange and lemon tree cultivation is also good for macadamia. Macadamia through cultivated commercially in Australia it is in Hawaii that maximum improvement and advancement in terms of selection of superior cultivars has taken place and in short time of about 100 years macadamia culture has become a very fruitful entrepreneur. Presently there is huge gap between the macadamia nut demand and supply therefore efforts are being made to introduce macadamia into other tropical and subtropical parts of the world.

INTRODUCTION:

An association of two organisms, one living at the expense of other for food and shelter is called parasitism. Parasite factors associated with recognition and selection of the host and the mechanisms in the host responsible for acceptance or rejection of the invading organism were evaluated. Sensory structures in parasites are able to detect differences between different fish species and this ability to discern between fishes may be based on both chemical and mechanical stimuli on the host surface. Complex glycoproteins, proteins, carbohydrates and simple molecules attract parasites or modify their behaviour. (Kurt Buchmann and T. Lindenstrom, 2002)

Machine learning provides powerful approaches for extracting useful information from complex plant, environmental and agricultural datasets. This chapter examines the principles and applications of machine learning in plant data analysis. It introduces different types of plant data, including phenotypic, genotypic, environmental and image-based information, followed by preprocessing, normalization, feature extraction and feature selection. Supervised learning techniques such as regression, decision trees, random forests and support vector machines are discussed for applications including crop yield prediction and disease detection. Unsupervised learning, clustering, principal component analysis and advanced ensemble and deep learning approaches are also considered, along with model evaluation, data limitations and future developments.

In this chapter of machine learning algorithms we will cover the basic algorithms of machine learning with their implementation using dataset and discuss their pro’s and cons of algorithms for better understanding and how to use them in any project or with any dataset to get an correct result which can useful for research or study.

Key Component

We defined a data set composed of audio, images and binary labels that provided an understanding of how we could train a model from snippets to classifications. This sort of problem is one of many kinds of machine learning problems when we try and predict a specified unknown label given known inputs, provided that a dataset of examples for which labels are known is called supervised learning. Let’s discus what are the major key components we have to get there

Agriculture 4.0, otherwise called “Digital Agricultural Revolution”, addresses a change in outlook in agriculture, utilizing state of the art innovations to improve different parts of cultivating tasks. These innovations include the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial brainpower (Artificial intelligence), Huge Information, distributed computing, Cloud computing, Decision Support System (DSS), high level detecting innovation, and independent robots. Sensors and mechanical technology assume a urgent part in gathering fundamental field information, which is then sent to a neighborhood or cloud server by means of IoT innovation for capacity, handling, and examination. Large information and Artificial intelligence-based strategies can be utilized to change over this information into significant experiences. To work with client connection and informed independent direction, a DSS outfits clients with the fundamental devices to improve the agricultural framework and embrace proper activities.
AI (ML), a subset of Artificial intelligence, has shown extraordinary potential in upgrading different parts of agriculture 4.0. It very well may be characterized as a PC program or framework that can learn explicit errands without being expressly modified to do so. An interaction includes the utilization of a PC to go with choices in light of various information inputs. For this situation, information means a bunch of models. Marked information is frequently utilized for managed learning undertakings (where the model gains from named models), and unlabeled information may be utilized for solo learning assignments (where the model tracks down examples and designs in the information).
ML for sure advantage from a lot of information to accomplish significant exactness in their errands. With regards to farming, acquiring immense and various information can be at times testing yet crucial for the outcome of ML models. IoT sensors are instrumental in gathering a different scope of farming information as they can be decisively sent across fields to catch pertinent data with respect to, for example, soil conditions, Climate factors, crop wellbeing, and animals’ measurements. The inescapable reception of IoT innovation works with constant and continuous information procurement, empowering

A machine learning model is a program that can find patterns or make decisions from a previously unseen dataset. For example, in natural language processing, machine learning models can parse and correctly recognize the intent behind previously unheard sentences or combinations of words. In image recognition, a machine learning model can be taught to recognize objects - such as cars or dogs. A machine learning model can perform such tasks by having it ‘trained’ with a large dataset. During training, the machine learning algorithm is optimized to find certain patterns or outputs from the dataset, depending on the task. The output of this process - often a computer program with specific rules and data structures - is called a machine learning model. Machine Learning Model is a computational program that learns patterns from data and makes decisions or predictions on new, unseen data. It is created by training a machine learning algorithm on a

1. Machine Learning

Learning denotes changes in a system that enable a system to do the same task more efficiently the next time (Simon, 1983)or Learning is constructing or modifying representations of what is being experienced (Ryszard Michalski et al., 1986). Machine learning is a scientific discipline concerned with the design and development of algorithms that allow computers to evolve behaviors based on empirical data, such as sensor data or databases. A learner can take advantage of examples (data) to capture characteristics of interest of their unknown underlying probability distribution. Data can be seen as examples that illustrate relations between observed variables. Discover new things or structure that is unknown to humanseg. data mining.A major focus of machine learning research is to automatically learn to recognize complex patterns and make intelligent decisions based on data.