eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Species of the Clupeiformes (Teleostei), commonly known as herrings, shads, menhadens, sardines, anchovies, and their relatives, are a major component of forage fishes in coastal ecosystems and dominate worldwide forage fish landings (Tacon and Metian, 2009a; FAO, 2020). Clupeiformes are globally distributed fishes with having nearly 419 marine, freshwater, and diadromous species (Bloom and Egan, 2018) and they are filter-feeding fishes that form large schools having a diverse group of trophic guilds and habitats (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Additional to providing ecological and economic support, clupeiforms contribute to global food security given their abundance, easy access, and exceptionally high nutrient content (FAO, 2018). In some human communities, clupeiforms comprise the major or the sole protein source (Alder et al., 2008; Mohanty et al., 2019). Historically, clupeiform presence has been associated with persistent human settlement, growth, and survival (Thornton et al., 2010; Levin et al., 2016).

Clupeiform fishes are ecologically diverse and span all aquatic habitats, including coastal and open marine environments, oceanic islands, estuaries, and freshwater rivers and lakes (Whitehead, 1985; Lavoue et al., 2013). Species can be restricted to marine, estuarine, or fresh waters, or they can be euryhaline, where a subset exhibit diadromy (Whitehead, 1985). Strictly marine clupeiforms (33.7% of all species) are distributed in every ocean, except for the Southern Ocean (Whitehead, 1985), while strictly freshwater species (17.8% of all species) are found on every continent except for Antarctica (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Major threats to clupeiforms are similar to those found for other groups of fishes (e.g., Roberts and Hawkins, 1999; Reynolds et al., 2005), with overexploitation as the leading threat for all clupeiforms in all habitats. While overexploitation may be the most prolific threat by impacting the highest number of clupeiforms, pollution may be the most detrimental, as it affects greater numbers of CR species. When compared to other economically and ecologically important fish groups globally assessed using the IUCN Red List methodology, clupeiforms have the lowest estimated percentage of threatened and NT species overall. Using the midpoint of species evaluated as elevated concern, roughly 11% are currently at high risk compared to approximately 22% of tunas and billfishes (Collette et al., 2011), 19% of sparids (Comeros Raynal et al., 2016), and 19% of groupers (Sadovy de Mitcheson et al., 2020).

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity can be useful as an ecosystem indicator for conservation and monitoring, through continuous assessment of its main properties including stability, primary productivity, exploitation tolerance and even global environmental changes (Douglas et al., 2012). Crustaceans are found one of the most morphologically diverse taxonomic groups on the planet (Martin and Davis, 2001). Among them, decapods are the most studied taxon, mainly on account of the commercial interest of some species and their great diversity (Isarch and Munoz, 2015). Decapods are chiefly composed of marine species that live in waters depths ranging from shallow to deeper than 5000 m. Isarch and Munoz (2015) described the importance of this group lies in several factors such as the great biomass they represent, their significant role in marine food webs and the commercial interest of many decapod species. Order Decapoda comprises the commercially important shrimps, crabs and lobsters. Out of 649 species of marine crabs so far recorded from Indian waters, only 12 species of edible crabs namely Portunus sanguinolentus, P. plagicus, Charybdis feriatus, C. lucifera, C. annulata, C. natator, Scylla serrata, S. tranquebarica, Matuta lunaris, Sesarma tetragonum and Varuna litterata, which inhabit the coastal waters and adjoining brackishwater environments, support commercial fisheries (Menon and Pillai, 1996). However substantial quantities of crabs are landed every year as by-catches of shrimp trawlers and indigenous fishing units throughout the county.

India represents one of the major contributors to the world production of marine crustaceans. Shrimps constitute as the main seafood export industry for the major foreign exchange earner as well as a source of livelihood for millions of fish workers. As shrimps are targeted for fishing, information on the present status of the fishery is critical for implementation of proper management. Some of the important penaeid shrimps that support commercial fisheries along the Indian seas are Fenneropenaeus indicus, P.semisulcatus P.monodon, P.merguiensis, P.japonicus, P.penicillatus, Metapenaeus dobsoni, M.monoceros, M. affinis, M. kutchensis , M. brevicornis, Parapenaeopsis stylifera, P.hardwickii, P.sculptilis, P.maxillipedo, P.uncta, Trachypenaeus curvirostris, Metapenaeopsis stridulans, Parapenaeus longipes, Solenocera crassicornis and S.choprai (Mohan Joseph and Jayaprakash, 2003). Rajkumar et al. (2015) carried out molecular identification of shrimp species, Penaeus semisulcatus, Metapenaeus dobsoni, Metapenaeus brevicornis, Fenneropenaeus indicus, Parapenaeopsis stylifera and Solenocera crassicornis from Tamil Nadu, India.

INTRODUCTION

Ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation are well recognized as essential to human well-being and have become a policy priority. India is gifted with a large coastline and vast stretches of coastal wetlands. The estuaries and back waters which may include mangroves, mud flats, bays etc. extend over a large part of the Indian coasts. The mangrove ecosystem functions as a habitat for nurseries, thus benefiting fishers in the food chain (Mumby et al., 2004; Venkatachalam et al., 2018). Mangrove habitats increase the survival ratio of young fish that migrate to other offshore habitats when they mature, resulting in the enrichment of fish biomass in adjacent mangrove areas (Mumby et al., 2004; Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008). Mangroves enhance fish production by providing food and shelter to fishery resources. Mangrove forests are highly productive, with average primary productivity level similar to that of tropical terrestrial forests (Alongi, 2009). Therefore, mangrove loss could have a devastating effect on fishery outcomes. The estimated fish catch is up to 70% higher in mangrove areas than in non-mangrove areas (Das, 2017).

NATURE OF MANGROVE FORESTS

Mangroves are amongst the most productive marine ecosystems on the Earth, providing a unique habitat opportunity for many species and key goods and significant services for human beings. They are salt tolerant plants, and are found distributed growing in estuaries, lagoons, backwaters and bays at the land-sea interface in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Mangroves thrive on low-oxygen through the breathing roots or pneumatophores that are used for respiration. They need freshwater for their growth and so they live at the sea edge, they must remove the salts from the water that is taken in by the roots.

11.1 Quality

• Quality of fruit or any other commodity is combination of attributes, properties or characteristics like appearance, texture, flavor and nutritive value that determine their value to the consumer.

• Keeping quality is also an important quality attributes in all fruits.

• Quality parameters • Appearance (size, shape, color and freedom from defects)

• Texture (firmness and juiciness)

• Flavors (swetness, sourness, bitterness, astringency, aroma and off f lavour)

• Nutritional (vitamins and minerals)

• Quality management Quality management is a method of ensuring the effectiveness of all the factors those implemented to improve and maintain the quality in acceptance form at consumer’s level.

11.2 Pre-harvest management of quality

11.2.1 Genotype and rootstock management

10.1 What is nutrient management?

• Nutrient management is an important component in orchard management for high efficiency and high fruit quality. Fruit trees are perennial woody plants which can store nutrients and then release them for growth.

• Therefore, the nutrient uptake of fruit trees includes the total nutrients of the fruits, leaves, new branches, and time increments of storage. Nutrient uptake is different under different yield levels. For example, the N uptake of apple trees was 100–120, 110– 130,120–140, and 130 150kg/ha under yield levels of 30, 45, 60, and 75t/ha, respectively.

• Basal fertilization is considered to be important for high-quality fruit production by providing nutrients for tree growth and also improving soil structure which promotes better root development. It is usually recommended and immediately applied during the dormant season up to autumn, after fruit harvest.

• Top dressing applications are usually chemical fertilizers which are applied two to four times before bud break or prior to or after blooming and at the fruit enlargement stage, depending on the requirements of each type of fruit tree.

• Using this INM method, the total nutrient demand is calculated according to target fruit yield level and NPK fertilizers are recommended based on soil fertility index (High, Moderate, and Low soil fertility) and nutrient demand with different stages. For moderate apply trees, most of N fertilizer is applied in autumn after picking to add N storage and renew tree vigor, and most of the P fertilizer is applied in spring with flowing stage to improve flower bud quality, and most of the K fertilizer is applied in summer fruiting period to improve fruit quality. Management of high yielding fruits using suitable pruning, and irrigation, are combined in this INM

Introduction

• Successful horticultural production is not possible without sufficient moisture regimes and for that, the appropriate techniques should be adopted.

• In the total cultivated land of India, 75 % of land contributed as a rainfed area or dry land area in which 60% with semi-arid and 19.3 % of area with arid zone.

• The irrigation facilities are covered only 38 % of the total cultivated land of the country.

• The moisture is always the limiting factor in arid area.

• So, conservation of soil moisture or water management is the most important task for arid fruit production.

• Out of total cultivated area of Horticultural production, l lakh ha is under arid or semi-arid.

• In arid area, some fruit crops with specials features are adapted for their production. So, in this area, the soil moisture conservation or the water harvesting techniques is the prime important tools for crop production with best management systems.

8.1 What is stress?

• Physics:Mechanical force per unit area applied to an object.

• Biology:Stress is any adverse environmental factor or condition that affects normal metabolic or physiological processes. It may be :

• Biotic stress (living) • Abiotic stress (non-living) 8.2 Abiotic stress

• Abiotic stress is defined as:“The negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment”

• Only 10% of the world arable land may be categorized as free from stress.

8.2.1 Type of abiotic stress

8.2.1.1 Temperature stress

• Temperature is one of the most important components of climate. It plays vital role in the production of horticultural crops.

• The different activities of plant like growth and development, respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration, uptake of nutrients and water and reproduction (Such as pollen viability, blossom fertilization fruit set etc.), carbohydrate and growth regulators balance, rate of maturation and senescence, and quality, yield and shelf life of the edible products.

• The above function of the plant should be well when the temperature at the optimum range.During high temperature plant does not perform proper functions of growth, where in low temperature physiological activities of the plant are stopped.

Introduction

• India is the second largest producer of fruits in the world after China

• India is rich in fruit diversity starting from tropical, subtropical to temperate region.

• Some of the fruits like Guava, pomegranate, lemon, mandarin etc., if left without any treatment, give several light harvests of the variable quantities and qualities from the various flowering flushes throughout the year.

• Some of the fruit crops bloom throughout the year without any resting period and produces two or three crops (bahar) in a year but yield and quality is not so good in all crop harvest. So, it is very essential to understand the flowering and fruiting behavior of crops and which bahar will give good crop with considering all the factors associated with a particular bahar.

7.1 What is crop regulation?

• Crop regulation means to force the tree for its rest and to produce blossom and fruits during any one of two or three flushes”

• Crops in which flowering is continuous throughout the year; economic yield cannot be achieved in any of the season.

• Therefore, by analyzing market demand flowering can be forced in particular one season, which gives the economic yield.

• Through various techniques like cultural practices and chemical treatments, trees are thrown to rest prior to flowering and then practices are done to trigger flowering.

• Thus, crop regulation is a method to regulate flowering by altering natural tendency of the tree by artificial means.

6.1 Scenario in precision farming

• India’s population is around 1366 million by 2020 which requires food grain production of 350 million tones.

• Considering the current food grain production levels, India needs to raise food grain production levels by not less than 4.00 per cent per year. As the availability of land has decreased, application of fertilizers and pesticides become necessary to increase food production.Indiscriminate use of inputs coupled with improper management practices over a long period has resulted in decline in soil productivity.

• Agriculture production system is outcome of interaction of various agro inputs. Therefore, judicious management of these inputs is necessary for the sustainability of these inputs.

• In our agriculture systems, spatial variability over the landscape is ignored and fertilizers, herbicide, pesticides, fungicides etc. are applied at uniform rate over the whole field.

• It has been recognized that crops and soils are not uniform within a given field. The management of in-field variability in soil fertility and crop conditions for improving crop production and minimizing the environmental impact is the crux of precision farming.

• Definitions • It is defined as the application of technologies and principles to manage spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production (Pierce and Nowak, 1999).

• It is an integrated information and production-based farming system that is designed to increase long term, site specific and whole farm production efficiency, productivity and profitability while minimizing unintended impacts on environment.

5.1 Crop modelling

• Crop model

• “Schematic representation of the system’’i.e. a model as defined by De Wit 1970.

• Such a model can be based on statistics applied to a set of experimental data or on physical laws (Guyot, 1997).e.g. Irrigation is able to satisfy a crop’s water needs provided its management relies on the measurement or estimation of evapotranspiration. The manager can either invest in equipment to monitor changes in water content in the soil or fluxes of water into the plant or the atmosphere, or rely on a ‘‘schematic representation of the system’’, i.e. a model.

• In very simple terms we can define a crop model as “a well-thought out plan of activities to grow the desired crop to get maximum possible yields of high-quality produce with the given resources. It can be a mental or a written exercise (a “schematic representation of the system”) that a farmer or a farm manager prepares for a crop or for an individual crop”.

• In other words, we can also say that a model is “an attempt to describe a certain process or system through the use of a simplified representation, preferably a quantitative mathematical expression, that focuses on a relatively a few key variables that control the process or system”.

• It is clear that in finalizing a crop model we have to assume some mean or standard values (based on the past record, experience, expert judgment, etc.) of the variables which we may not be taking explicitly in our model.

4.1.1 Vertical row planting pattern

1. Square system: In this system, trees are planted on each comer of a square whatever may be the planting distance. This is the most commonly followed system and is very easy to layout. The central place between four trees may be advantageously used to raise short lived filler trees. This system permits inter cropping and cultivation in two directions.

2. Rectangular system: In this system, trees are planted on each corner of a rectangle. As the distance between any two rows is more than the distance between any two trees in a row, there is no equal distribution of space per tree. The wider alley spaces available between rows of trees permit easy intercultural operations and even the use of mechanical operations.

4.1.2 Alternate row planting pattern

3. Hexagonal system

• In this method, the trees are planted in each comer of an equilateral triangle.

• This way six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in the centre.

• Therefore, this system is also called as 'septule' as a seventh tree is accommodated in the centre of hexagon.

• This system provides equal spacing but it is difficult to layout.

• The perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows is equal to the product of 0.866 x the distance between any two trees.

• This system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system. The limitations of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is not so easily done as in the square system.

Introduction

• At present, horticulture is recognized as a potential sector to enhance agricultural production, improve house hold nutritional security and income generation through diversification and employment, value addition and export.

• Inspite of the enormous success achieved in horticulture sector, several constraints still exist.

• Besides new emerging challenges, poor productivity per unit area continues to be a concern in most of the horticultural crops with climate change impacting the productivity further.

3.1 Role of root stock in fruit crops

• The role of rootstocks and its use in different fruit crops has significant impact on fruit crop production by influencing canopy architecture, nutritional uptake, flowering, yield and fruit quality.

• Besides, it can also confront biotic and abiotic stresses such as soil pathogens, thermal stress, salinity and nutritional stress.

• Due to limited availability of arable land and high market demand for fruit crops, they are frequently cultivated under unfavorable soil and environmental conditions like thermal stress, drought, flooding, salinity and contamination of organic pollutants.

• One way to substantiate or reduce these losses in production would be the use of appropriate rootstocks, which are capable of reducing the effect of external stresses on the scion.

• Rootstocks have a primary role in determining orchard efficiency.

• They are responsible for water and mineral uptake and provide anchorage for the tree.

Introduction

• The green revolution of the 1960s and 1970s ended chronic food deficits and while cereals still command the attention of policy makers, fruit production has surged impressively, making India the second largest global producer behind China.

• Annual growth in horticulture has seen fruit production grow at faster rate and constitute the larger segment of agriculture. • No doubt, there has been manifold increase in area, production and productivity but when we compare the productivity of various major fruit crops with other developed countries, our productivity is very low.

• This may be mainly attributed by non-availability of quality planting material and seeds, existence of old unproductive seedling orchards, small and unirrigated land holdings, use of inferior genetic stocks/ varieties/hybrids, poor management and non-adoption of package of practices, high incidence of pest and diseases, heavy pre and post harvest losses and lack of trained human resource.

• To meet increasing demand the productivity per unit area per unit time and per unit investment has to be increased from limited land resources, where production and supply of quality planting material of elite varieties is one such important factor that can bring tremendous improvement in production, productivity and higher economic returns to farmers.

• This may be mainly attributed by non-availability of quality planting material and seeds, existence of old unproductive seedling orchards, small and unirrigated land holdings, use of inferior genetic stocks/ varieties/hybrids, poor management and non-adoption of package of practices, high incidence of pest and diseases, heavy pre and post harvest losses and lack of trained human resource.

Introduction

Fruit crops have been cultivated for centuries, both commercially and in amateur gardens, and many species covering a wide range of trees, shrubs, and non-woody perennials.Fruit crop species have certain common characteristics: they are long-lived, usually highly heterozygous, and clonally propagated from an elite mother plant. Fruits are increasingly recognized as an important component of a healthy diet, and consumption of temperate fruit and fruit products, especially juices and dairy derivatives, has risen sharply over the past decade.China is the largest producer of fruit crops with approximately.

• India ranks the second in fruit production.

• India has witnessed increase in horticulture production over the last few years. Significant progress has been made in area expansion resulting in higher production.

• Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by 2.6% per annum and annual production increased by 4.8%.

• Production of fruit crops has increased from 50.9 Million Tonnes to 97.35 Million Tonnes since 2004-05 to 2017-18.

• Total production of fruits is highest in case of Andhra Pradesh followed by Maharashtra.

The name Lepidoptera derived from the Greek words “lepido” meaning Scale and “ptera” meaning wings refers to the flattened hairs (Scales) that cover the body and wings of most adults. Lepidoptera (Moths and Butterflies) is the second largest order (1.10 lakh sp.) in the class insecta, characterized by the body, wings and appendages being generally covered densely with pigmented scales which provide the colour pattern of the characteristic of the species and play an important role in courtship and intraspecific recognition.

Adults

• Head: Hypognathus and relatively small.

• Compound eyes are large and set well apart. Ocelli two in number in moths or reduced to Chaetosoma in butterfly.

• Mouthparts form a coiled tube (Proboscis) beneath the head.

• Antennal type:

• Butterflies: Clubbed, clavate, capitate.

• Moths: Pectinate (Uni/Bi).

• Adults have siphoning type mouthparts except in micropterygidae (Mandibulate mouthparts). Front wings large, triangular, hindwings large, fan shaped.

• Body and wings covered with small, overlapping scale.

• Thoracic segments are fused and metathorax is the largest and most prominent.

• Wings covered with scales. Androconia (Plumules) on upper surface of wings in some males serves as outlet for odouriferous glands. are fringed distally with each tip finely divided. • Wing coupling apparatus variable (generally Frenulum and retinaculum or Amplexiform type)

• The name Zoraptera, derived from the Greek “zor” meaning pure and “aptera” meaning wingless was given to the order before winged forms were discopvered.

• Members of the order Zoraptera are small (less than 4 mm) and usually found in rotting wood, under bark or in piles of old sawdust.

• They live in small aggregations (gregarious) and appear to scavenge on spores and mycelium of fungi, or occasionally, on mites and other small arthropods.

• polymorphism in populations; with blind, apterous individuals dominating during colony life, but populations produce eyed alates (individuals with wings) for dispersal and founding new colonies.

• males with a distinctive “mating hook” and unique mating behaviors.

• unique grooming behaviors

Adults

• Antennae 9-segmented (moniliform).

• Mouthparts mandibulate, hypognathous.

• Soft bodied, small (usually less than 3 mm).

• Wings often absent with reduced venation when present.

• Tarsi 2-segmented

• Cerci 1-segmented

• ovipositor absent

• incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)

Apterygotes

The Apterygota, which formerly included the other primitively wingless insects currently placed in the class Entognatha, are now restricted to the two orders Archaeognatha and Zygentoma, which in turn were formerly united as the Thysanura. Despite the superficial similarity of the two groups, it is now clear that they are not closely related, mainly because of fundamental differences in the mouthparts. The Archaeognathous mandibles are monocondylic, having a single articulating point with the head so that the mandible can rotate. The Zygentomous mandibles are dicondylic, with two articulating points that restrict the motion to a single plane yet enable the development of a much stronger biting action; this is the type found in all the higher insects, and the Zygentoma may well be the sister group of the Pterygota, or winged insects. Clearly the ‘Apterygota’ is not a monophyletic group and is simply retained for convenience in grouping these two orders that superficially resemble each other and have similar life histories.

History

• Aristotle (384-322 BC): A good beginning of taxonomy was made by Aristotle (Historia Animalium). He erected entomon. He could distinguish mandibulates and haustellates; winged and wingless forms. The insect orders like coleopteran, dipteral, psyche (Lepidoptera) were created by him. Hence, he was called as Father of Biological Classification.

• Linnaeus (1707-1778): Father of Taxonomy and Binomial Nomenclature. He coined the term Insecta. He used the term Systematics. His greatest contribution is Systema Naturae.

• Brawer (1885): Laid foundations for modern system of classification and responsible to divide class Insecta into Apterygota and Pterygota.

• Michael Anderson (1727-1806): Contemporary and rival of Linnaeus. Introduced Numerical Taxonomy and hence is called Father of Numerical Taxonomy. 

• Johan Christian Fabricius (1745–1808), the first systematist considered to specialize on insects, published in 1778 his Philosophia Entomologica (40), the first textbook of entomology.

• Fabricius had already set forth his system of insects in 1775 (Systema Entomologiae), his system of genera in 1776 (Genera Insectorum), and then numerous works on species, culminating in individual accounts of the species of each order