eChapters

INTRODUCTION

The discipline of Agrometeorology, an applied science is less than fifty years old. Its services are operationally used by individual farmers in developed countries, and by agricultural or development services in more than half of the countries of the world. Its contribution to agricultural production by examining forecast is sought in virtually all countries. In many countries, the respective governments have expressed the desire to use meteorological information to a much larger extent in day-to-day farm planning and operations. The climate database is used for the development of practical criteria in planning and management of irrigated and rainfed crop production system (Martin Smith, 2000).

Though a huge set of Agromet data exists in India, its utility has not been effective due to the scattered location of these data sources and the impediments for free flow of data to the users to analyze and interpret for real-time decision making in agriculture. There is also a considerable time lag between the actual observation and data availability. In view of the importance and the immediate exigency to centralize the database system for helping the researchers and planners, a central agrometeorological databank facility funded by DST from 1998 to 2003 and later by ICAR with the following objectives was established at Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (ICAR), Hyderabad.

INTRODUCTION

Rubber cultivation in regions extending from 10°N to 10°S latitude is known as the traditional region and the areas other than its natural climatic origin is termed as the non-traditional region. Northeast India comprises majority of the non-traditional areas in India with major climatic constraints like high seasonal rainfall, excessive precipitation and to some extent dry conditions. These areas extending from 22 to 29^°N latitude, holds promise in extending rubber cultivation because of its exceptional climatic make-up and abundant amount of annual precipitation (2000 mm) distributed over a fair period of time.

This perennial crop generally yields latex rubber at the 7th year after planting (with an economic life span of 20 years), although the period (immaturity period) it requires, is higher in the non-traditional region (Rubber Growers Companion, 2006). This immaturity period has also been shown to reduce with water availability in sub-humid climates (Vijayakumar et al. , 1998). Harvest of this crop is by tapping. Tapping is a process of controlled wounding during which thin shavings of bark are removed, thus opening the latex vessels which exude latex. Dry rubber yield is obtained after the latex is coagulated and rolled into sheets (about 500gm) which is then smoked and dried.

Background

Context

The information and knowledge system in virtually all sectors and access during the Soviet period was strictly state controlled and was essentially designed to meet the requirements of centralized planning. Very little information sourcing, message development, media packaging took place at the local level. Requirements for meeting agricultural production quotas were channeled to Moscow where information packages and norms, based on a central assessment of local needs were developed and transmitted from the center directly to the state and collective farms. The information was disseminated primarily via dense print publications, radio, TV, public campaigns, exhibitions and fairs, and to some extent through a computer network to areas with functioning telecommunication systems. The types of information and knowledge which the state and collective farms, private farmers, kitchen gardeners, agro-processing industries, input suppliers, marketing institutions and others engaged in agriculture could obtain were restricted and opportunities for exchange with the rest of the world were extremely limited and tightly controlled. There were very few avenues for cross checking the information received. In-house, well trained technical specialists addressed a variety of crop and livestock related problems and served as the main providers of knowledge. This was supplemented by research and field applications through a very large network of a variety of agricultural research institutes and experiment stations. Most of the research results were introduced through directives. Linkages between education, research, extension and end-users were weak and in some areas non-existent. However, the importance placed on education and training of all Soviet citizens resulted in a highly literate population to serve the needs of a socialistic economy. The centralized information and knowledge system was primarily aimed at meeting production targets in the plan with little or no importance placed on economic or environmental sustainability of farming systems and development of agro-industries.

To prepare a series of dilutions of the original more concentrated stock solution, one need to consider both the required final concentration and required volume of the diluted material. The dilution can be readily calculated by the equation:

Fermented foods are food substrates that are produced due to the cumulative activity, usually of edible microorganisms, whose enzymes, particularly amylases, proteases and lipases hydrolyze the polysaccharides, proteins and lipids to non-toxic products with flavours, aromas and textures pleasant and attractive to the human consumer. The role played by fermentation during food processing helps in – enrichment of human dietary through development of wide diversity of flavours, aromas and textures in food; preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcoholic, acetic acid, alkaline fermentation and high salt fermentations; enrichment of food substrates biologically with vitamins, protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids and antibiotics; detoxification during food fermentation processing and reducing the cooking times and fuel requirements.

It is an old practice that during the flourishing period, the fishes specially trash fishes are caught from their natural habitat and a bulk of them are preserved to make available for further use. Traditional fish preservation techniques are mainly based on combination of salting, drying and smoking. These techniques have allowed more widespread consumption of fish. Sun drying is most ancient method of fish preservation. Drying removes moisture from tissues and help to arrest bacterial and enzymatic putrefaction.

Fermented fish have, for many years, been considered as a Southeast Asian product. These products are highly salted and fermented until the flesh is transformed into simpler components. Fermentation of fish is a product in which the identity of the fish is maintained to large extent. Fermented fish products as fish sauces, fish paste, or salted fish have been consumed since ancient times. Because of poor roads and other methods of transport, the provision of fresh fish to potential inland consumers was impossible, and this encouraged fermentation as a preservation technique. In Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Kampuchea, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia, the use of fermentation as a preservation method for fish has been of great value since earliest times. In the countries of northern Europe, fermented fish products are used mainly as condiments, whereas in Southeast Asia, various fish products are regarded as staples. In India and Sri Lanka, pickled and in Colombo, cured fish have been known for many years

Equines are herbivorous monogastric animals. Though, simple-stomached, they can digest considerable amount of fibrous feed in the caecum and are called as hindgut fermenters. Equine includes horse, donkey, zebra and mule which are used as work and pack animal. All three species of equine belongs to the family Equidae. The scientific name of Horse and Donkey is Equus caballus and Equus asinus, respectively. The horse was probably last farm animal domesticated by the man. Horses appear to have been domesticated first in central Asia or Persia, more than 3000 years ago.

Globally livestock sector is changing rapidly in response to globalization and increasing demand for quality foods of animal origin. Animal husbandry is the backbone of rural economy of our country. The value of output from livestock sector is about 29 percent of the total value of output (GDP) of the agriculture and allied sectors. The livestock sector has been contributing over 5% to total GDP. India ranks first in milk production which accounts for more than 15 percent of total world output and 40 percent of Asia’s total production. It continues to grow at about 4 percent per annum far exceeding the global average of 1-2 percent. Further, the manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields. The gobar gas from the dung is used as fuel for domestic purposes. The surplus fodder and agricultural by-products are gainfully utilized for feeding the animals. Almost all draught power for farm operations and transportation is supplied by bullocks. Indian animal husbandry practices are based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony. This principle also holds good for organic farming. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people (NOSB, 1995). Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity.

13.1 Introduction

Distributed optical fiber sensors are those sensors which monitor a single measurand at a large number of locations or continuously over the path of the optical fiber. The measurand can be a physical or a chemical quantity. The distributed optical fiber sensor generally consists of a common light source, optical fiber to carry light to the sensing probes and a return fiber to carry modulated light to a photodetector. These sensors can utilize any kind of light modulations described earlier. The advantages associated with distributed sensing are reduced number of components and hence the cost, reduced weight and cabling, and electrical passivity. The applications include the measurements of temperature, pressure, strain, current and chemical concentration. If the measurand is monitored continuously along the fiber length then the sensor is called intrinsic distributed sensor. If it is measured at a finite number of locations then the sensor is called quasi-distributed sensor. The quasi-distributed sensor has a number of advantages over intrinsic distributed sensor. In quasi-distributed sensor, spatial resolution is not as important as in intrinsic distributed sensor provided that individual sensors can be clearly resolved. Further, in quasi-distributed sensing, the sensor elements can be tailored in terms of responsivity and range to meet the specific needs of the application. In this chapter we shall describe various kinds of distributed sensing approaches and few optical fiber distributed sensors.

INTRODUCTION

Alstroemeria is still a relatively new cut flower in the world market and the interest in it is continuously growing. This increase is due to the fact that this flower crop is fairly easy to cultivate and does not require special demands. Its flowers are beautiful and have a very long vase life. It is commonly known as Brazilian Parrot lily or Peruvian lily or Incan lily or Red Parrot Beak or New Zealand Christmas Bell. In the Dutch market, it is an important cut flower and gaining popularity in the international market. Recently some efforts have been made to popularize this flower in India as cut flower and pot plants by some multinational companies. Its cultivation has been started around Bangalore, Pune and Hyderabad. Recently it has been introduced in Palampur, Solan, Srinagar and Ooty, to popularize this crop among growers for domestic and export markets. This crop can be grown successfully on the hill areas of Uttaranchal. Mid and high hill areas are very suitable for growing it. Alstroemeria is a typical greenhouse crop, but can be grown in open under mild environments with partial modifications. It is a potential, low volume and high value crop for hill horticulture.

INTRODUCTION

Anthuriums are a perennial herbaceous plant of great beauty and grown either for their showy cut flowers or for their attractive foliage. They are valued for their colourful long lasting spathe and spadix. The cultivars contribute elegance and attractiveness, which are pre-requisites for quality and floral design. It is also known as Flamingo flower or Flamingo lily. What is usually considered the flower is comprised of a colourful, modified leaf (spathe) and hundreds of small, botanical flowers on the pencil like protrusion (spadix) rising from the base of spathe. Anthurium have been cultivated from many decades for cut flower production. Since the mid 1980’s its popularity has increased dramatically and has now become a popular addition to many foliage growers. The economic life span of anthurium is around 6-8 years.

In India the cut flowers of Anthurium andreanum are cultivated for considerable length of time although still in small scale. Commercial viable production should be estimated of approximately 5 ha, which is far below the market demand. The anthurium is getting increasing popularity in the Indian market and therefore, most of the locally produced anthurium is sold in the domestic market against reasonable prices. Its export possibility appears very promising as the flowers are already exported to the Middle East. The development of main flower distribution centre in Dubai offers important possibilities for Indian floriculture.

INTRODUCTION

Carnation is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crop. It occupies prime position in the international cut flower trade and is a good commercial cut flower for internal market as well. Carnation flower can easily withstand long distance transportation as it has an excellent kee in ualit Its cut flowers with a 70 to 90 cm stem length, healthy and bright flower commands a better price. Carnations have a sweet fragrance and also commercially utilized for extraction of oil in France and the Netherlands. The volatile oil of carnation contain 40% benzyl benzoate, 30% eugenol, 7% phenylethyl alcohol, 5% benzyl salicylate and 1% methyl salicylate. It is used only in sophisticated perfumes. Carnation flowers round the year and have wider colour range like red, salmon, pink, purple, yellow, orange, bicolour, stripped, white and fancy combinations. The major break through in carnation flower industry was evolvement of cultivar William Sim. This cultivar was produced in 1938 to 1939 by William Sim of the USA. From this red variety there have been mutations to white, pink, orange and different variegated forms. The first genetically modified carnation variety Moon Dust is released in Australia by a plant biotechnology company Florigene. There are several distinct types of carnations and each of these can be grown in cooler parts of the plains and at medium to higher elevation. Carnations are cultivated under glasshouses in temperate countries and in the open or in semi-protected conditions under polythene cover, in both tropical and sub-tropical regions. Because of strong emphasis on quality in both export and domestic market, commercial production of spray and standard carnations is considered as a crop of protected conditions. Before being planted in the greenhouse, the crop must be carefully planted so that it will meet the demands of the international markets.

INTRODUCTION

Jasmine is one of the first plants that come to mind when one thinks of sweet fragrance. A single jasmine vine can perfume an entire room or garden. Jasmines have adorned the gardens of central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Nepal and many other tropical and sub tropical countries. India exports jasmine flowers to the neighbouring countries like Srilanka, Singapore, Malaysia and also the Gulf. Jasmine contributes substantially to the national economy and annually about Rs. 20 crores worth of flowers are produced in India.

Plants are grown both as shrub and climber. Flowers and flower buds are used for making garlands, bouquets and veni and for religious offerings. Jasmine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued as it is used in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, creams, hair oils, soaps and shampoos. Flowers are used in jasmine tea or herbal or black tea. As a medicinal plant, jasmine has traditionally been considered an aphrodisiac and calmative. In India, it is grown in different states especially Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal because their flower and floral buds are in great demand.

INTRODUCTION

Lily is one of the most important ornamental bulbous plants. It comprises one of the distinctive flowers in form, appearance and colour. The flower stems of lily are long and sturdy with luxuriant foliage and it has longer vase life. Lilies are very useful flowering plants which can be planted in any location as they do well in the bed or border with other perennial. Almost all varieties of lily are suitable for planting in combination with other plants and in front of tall shrubs. They look very charming in large clusters for mass effect. Shorter varieties are planted in containers. Lilies may be planted in the perennial border, preferably with the plants having ample foliage. They seem to have fascination for some companion and thus can be grown with other flowers in the garden. The bulbs of some varieties of lily are edible and somewhat bitter in taste but fairly pleasant when properly cooked. In China, bulbs of tiger lily are prefered as food due to its specific taste. Lilaline, an alkaloid is also found in the flower of some lilies. Lily has several medicinal properties. The bulb is diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient and expectorant. The flowers are carminative. They are used to strengthen the eye lid muscles and are commended in the treatment of myoptic astigmia.

Among the lilies, two groups have been evolved through extensive improvement and referred as coloured lilies and extensively grown for cut flowers and other popular type is generally grown for garden display in India. Asiatic and Oriental lilies are leading cut flower group and in the international market. It is dominated by the Netherlands. An oriental hybrid cultivar Tiara is developed. It is true pollen free lily, excellent for bouquets. Oriental and Asiatic hybrid lilies are compact, with plant height of 60 to 150 cm that bears many flowers. Spikes of 10 to 15 cm flower diameter that may point up, out or down. Blooms may be red, pink, orange, yellow, lavender or white in colour. They grow well in full sun or light shade, although flowers sometimes fade if exposed to hot sun. They can be grown with companion plants providing less competition. Popularity of Oriental lily is increasing over Asiatic lily.

INTRODUCTION

Among the important ornamental bulbous plants, tuberose occupies a very prominent position. In the orient, where ‘white’ goes for virtue and purity, tuberose flower is much adored for its prettiness, elegance and fragrance. It is commercially grown as cut flower, loose flower as well as for its potential in perfume industry.

The flowers of tuberose are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and buttonholes. The long flower spikes are excellent as cut flowers for table decoration when arranged in bowls and vases. They remain fresh pretty long time and stand long distance transportation and fill a useful place in the flower market.

Plants of tuberose can be used in landscapes; in all-white gardens or with other plants. Variegated varieties with golden or yellow striped leaves are very attractive and these varieties are suitable for garden beautification. Potted plants can be put in decorative containers and used for entranceways and interiors.

INTRODUCTION

Zinnias are popular in flower gardens because of their variable coloured blooms and their ability to withstand hot summer temperatures. They are easy to grow from seeds. Plants come in many colours, shape and size adapted well to most growing conditions. Out of about twenty species, these are some eight to ten species of zinnia known to the gardens, but only few of them have become favourite and that abundantly deserves the pre-eminence. They have attained position as one of the most splendid of annual flowers. Most varieties are prolific bloomer, making them excellent for landscape. They are also available as compact varieties suitable for hanging baskets, window boxes and containers. Recently, new hybrid zinnia cultivars have attracted attention as a cut flower crop. There are at least hundred varieties in the diversity of flower colour and types. Some with flower heads upto 15 cm across. The colour of zinnias are white, cream, green, yellow, apricot, orange, red, bronze, crimson, purple and lilac with stripped, speckled and bicoloured flowers. An important variety of zinnia is Coccinea or Scarlet-rayed. This variety became popular after its existence in 1829 and was thought much of for its brilliant colour and stately habit. During the fifty years that have elapsed since it appeared, the flower has been in all characters and now posses a race of perfectly double zinnias, the flowers of which show no central disc, but are perfect rosettes of exquisite form and of every shade of colour except blue. There is not a more striking instance of floral advancement, accomplished by systematic selection, than is afforded by zinnia, which is at once one of the largest and long standing of many good and cheap annual flowers.

Abstract

Modern agriculture largely depends on use of high cost inputs and energy intensive farm machinery. Worlds increasing population and continuously deteriorating soil fertility has alarmed agriculture system to look for some safe alternatives. Organic manures are rich source ofnutrients and humans, therefore crop residue recycling by composting is a best alternate of modern high cost input based agriculture. Compost is an aerobically decomposed organic matter .Bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes algae and protozoa are involved in the process of composting and are found throughout the natural environment. The composting material warms up due to microbial activity and it’s temperature becomes up to 160 ⁰F active stage of microbial activity . There are four types of compositing i.e. Windrow composting, Aerated static pile composting, In-Vessel composting and Vermi-composting. The C: N ratio, aeration, temperature and moisture are major factors affecting composting process. Major advantages of composting are: Aggregate formation, Reduction in bulk density, Increase in hydraulic conductivity, Reduction in loss of soil moisture, Increase in organic carbon content and pH of soil.

1.    The basic building block(s) of proteins is/are

(a) Amino acids

(b) Phenolics

(c) Carboxylic acids

(d) Fatty acids

2.    Alpha helix and ?- pleated sheet are characteristic of protein structure?

(a) Primary

(b) Secondary

(c) Tertiary

(d) Quaternary

1.    A lipid is

(a) Insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents

(b) Insoluble in both water and nonpolar solvents

(b) Soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents

(d) None of the above

2.    Fats are

(a) Esters of fatty acid with glycerol

(b) Esters of fatty acid with long chain monohydroxy alcohols

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Esters of fatty acid with alcohols

1.    The function of myoglobin is to store in living animal’s muscle.

(a) Oxygen

(b) Nitrogen

(c) CO₂

(d) Oxygen + carbondioxide

2.    Myoglobin is in color when not carrying an oxygen molecule.

(a) Red

(b) Blue

(c) Purple

(d) White

1.    Food Additives are

(a) Nutritive substances added to enhance flavour, texture or storage properties

(b) Non-Nutritive substances added to enhance flavour, texture or storage properties

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Chemicals, added for preservation

2.    Which is an acceptable application of a food additive?

(a) As a fat replacer

(b) As an antioxidant

(c) As a food colorant

(d) All of these

1.     A fruit juice at 20°C with 10% total solids is concentrated in a single effect evaporator that is operated at a vacuum to allow the product moisture to evaporate at 80°C and steam with 82% quality is supplied at 169.06kPa. The desired concentration of the final product is 45% total solids and the concentrated product exits the evaporator at a rate of 300kg/hr. Calculate the steam requirement for the process when condensate is released at 90°C. The specific heat of liquid feed is 4.05 kJ/kg°C and of concentrated product is 3.175 kJ/kg°C.

(a) 3.35 kg/s

(b) 3.25 kg/s

(c) 4.25kg/s

(d) 2.35kg/s

2.     A double effect evaporator is being used to concentrate fruit juice at 35000kg/hr. The juice has 10% total solids at 80°C and requires to be concentrated to 50% total solids. The saturated steam at 1.608 atm is available. What is mass flow rate of water vapors?

(a) 7.505 kg/s

(b) 8.505 kg/s

(c) 5.707kg/s

(d) 6.808.kg/s

Milk is nutritious and essential food for human beings and also serve as good medium for microbial growth and contamination. Milk is a single, most nearly complete, natural food. Primarily it is meant for nourishing the newborns but man has exploited it for human consumption since long. Today milk has become indispensable integral component of our diet. About half the milk produced is consumed as fresh milk, the rest going into a variety of products including evaporated and condensed milk, dried milk powder, butter, cheese, malted milk, ice cream, yoghurt, lactose and casein. Milk is very important from a nutritional standpoint since it contained all the essential food constituents (carbohydrate-lactose, protein-casein, fat-butter, minerals- calcium, potassium and vitamins- A, B, C, D, E, and K) required in human diet in about the proper proportions. India is the second largest producer of milk in the world. India has exhibited unprecedented rate of growth in dairy development in last 30 years mainly due to sustained efforts of dairy technologists in Operation flood Programme introduced by the National Dairy Development Board. Dairy microbiology deals with aspects like shelf life and spoilage microbes, public health significance and food borne pathogens, and production of fermented dairy products.

SINGLE CELL PROTEIN (SCP) AND PROTEIN DEFICIENCY

Protein is an essential component of diet. The greatest single problem in the world today is global food protein shortage. Having adequate quantity of food is only one side of the picture, but the most important aspect is the supply of balanced and nutritious food. All efforts are being made to increase the food production through modern methods of farming. But very little attention is being paid towards protein requirements and production. Approximately half of world population suffers from the protein deficiency disease called ‘Kwashiorkor’ and children with poor protein are victims of this disease.

Usually, cereals have low protein values while protein rich pulses are not available in desired quantities due to poor yields and high costs. The good quality protein available in fish, meat, poultry, and eggs is not available due to poor economic condition as well as varied dietary habits. With the current system of production, agriculture cannot be relied upon to feed an ever increasing world population. Hence there is an urgent need to find other protein sources. The best potential is seen in microbial protein or single cell protein (SCP), a new source of protein independent of agriculture.

DEFINITION: The dried cells of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, yeasts, algae that are grown in large scale culture systems as proteins for human or animal consumption are collectively known as "single cell proteins".

Ex.No.1. MICROBIAL SPOILAGE OF FRUITS

Fruits are living structures that continue to perform metabolic reactions and sustain physiological processes for a considerable length of time after harvest. The post-harvest infection of fruits by microorganisms may cause serious losses of fruits both in terms of quantity and quality. Initial infection which may be the direct result of mechanical or insect damage is followed by invasion of fruit tissues by secondary infection by common saprophytic organisms. . Many bacteria and fungi, for instance, are involved in decay after harvest. Typical fungi include Alternaria, Botrytis, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Monilia, Penicillium, and Rhizopus. These fungi are generally weak pathogens, in that they usually infest only weak or damaged fruit. Molds are the most predominant spoilage organisms in fruits. Fungal rots in fruits like apple show brown or cream coloured areas.

Bacterial soft rot caused by Erwinia carotovora is wide spread in fruits that are not very acid. Fruits like straw berries, melons are in direct contact with moist soil and become infected from that source.

One of the major discoveries that gave birth to the field of microbiology was the development of instruments that could magnify, so that objects too small to be seen with the naked eye could be visualized. Robert Hooke in 1665, using an instrument with two sets of lenses (a crude compound microscope), was the first person to describe cells as life’s smallest structural units. In the early 1670s Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a simple magnifying lens to observe microbes he called ‘animalcules’ in rainwater, and was possibly the first person to observe microorganisms. The development of electron microscopes in the 1930s enabled magnifications of a further hundred times greater to be achieved.

A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. It can give magnification up to 20 times the size of the object.

Improvements in microscopes enabled scientists to study the ‘invisible’ organisms – that is, those too small to be seen with the naked eye. They were able to show that certain of these microscopic creatures are responsible for the infectious diseases of higher organisms. Most of them are harmless, some are essential for life and some are used in the manufacture of products that are of benefit to humans.

13.1 Introduction

Hospitality industry is the second largest industry in the world. It is well diversified and can be chosen as per the interest. Hospitality management involves planning, organizing, directing and controlling human and other resources within the different segments of hospitality industry i.e. lodging, restaurant, travel and tourism, institutional management, recreational management, meeting and convention planning industries. Although, these all are separate but related segments of the hospitality industry and are interrelated to provide good and efficient services to the guests and users. Hospitality industry provides services which are need oriented and differ in various parts of the world as per regions and the traditional styles.

The first building created specifically for hotel was ‘City Hotel’ with 73 rooms at 115 Broadway, New York in 1794. Pallonjee Pestonjee established the very first western-style hotel in India, “The Bristol Hotel” in Mumbai in 1840. According to the report of the department of Tourism, Government of India, at the end of the year 2004, there were 167 Five star hotels with approx. 28,900 rooms, whereas 126 Four star hotels, with 8,831 rooms [2]. To expedite the ongoing process of classification/re-classification of functioning hotels in one to three star categories, five Regional Committees have also been set up in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Guwahati and Chennai to conduct inspection [3].

This chapter reviews the published information on tsunami and attempts to characterize tsunamigenic sediments in terms of their microfossil content. Tsunamisare long-period waves generated by vertical displacements of marine watercolumn due to earthquakes, volcanic explosion and landslides. These waves can exceed heights of 25 meters (in shallow water) and lengths upto 100km with a velocity of more than 1000km/hour. Even at this magnitude, they are undetectable in deeper waters owing to very low wave height which in turn reduces significantly the response time, causing sudden havoc along coasts. They can cause flooding of coastal areas and affect areas thousands of kilometers away from their point of origin. These characteristics of tsunami imprint ensuing sediments with unique assemblage of microfossils.

INTRODUCTION

Shallow water progressive waves with very large wavelength and long duration caused by the rapid displacement of ocean water are called “tsunami”. Tsunami is a sudden non-meteorologically induced impulse in water regardless of size. Tsunamis are formed by submarine tectonic activity more often due to earthquakes and less frequently due to volcanic eruption, landslides near the coast, meteor impact and nuclear explosions.

The velocity of the tsunami varies and depends on many parameters such as bathymetry, height of the originating wave, initial pressure changes in the sea, etc. and can travel at a speed of more than 1000 km/hr. At the place of origin (directly above the epicentre of submarine earthquake or any other causative factor), the wavelength may be upto few tens to several hundred kilometres but the wave height is often less than one metre only. Since the velocity is proportional to the depth of the water column, it gets reduced to few tens of kilometres as the tsunami approaches the coast. However, the wave height increases significantly reaching 100 m in extreme cases. As a result, the tsunami strikes the coast with massive force. The effect is colossal in islands with low relief. The tsunami waves appear as flooding with water rushing inside the land more violently and with great force towards a river course. In several cases, when the tsunami arrives, the water level in the sea may drop significantly and the waters receding several hundred metres come back with great speed drubbing the coastal lands doubly from both the directions. Though an event of short duration in terms of geological history, tsunami deposits, owing to their higher rate of deposition and other salient characteristics, find place in stratigraphic records. This chapter is an attempt to review the characteristics of tsunami and tsunamigenic sediments, to find out the ability of microfossil content of such sediments for characterization and to identify tsunami deposits in stratigraphic records.

Need for systematic mapping and hazard zonation is emphasized in this chapter. Though prevention of natural disaster is not possible, its destruction could be minimized through implementation of effective hazard management system. With this motive, the coastal region between Tangapatnam and Ovari, Tamilnadu State has been classified into various categories of vulnerability based on its response to the 26th December 2004 tsunami. Based on the extent of seawater inundation and coastal geomorphic features, we have assessed the tsunami impact and estimated the behavior of the beaches in case of similar havoc in future. This study had shown that the maximum seawater inundation recorded in the study area is 750m in Colachel and the minimum is 100m in Kadiapatanam, Mandakadu and Vaniakudy areas. Chinnamuttom, Kanyakumari, Manakudy, Pallam and Colachel areas are under high risk.

INTRODUCTION

On 26^th December 2004, tectonic disturbances happened near Sumatra Island with an intensity of 9.3 in the Richter scale wrecked havoc on southwest part of India. In addition to inflicting life and infrastructure loss, the resultant tsunami event had also eroded severely the coastal region and modified topography of beach and shallow coastal regions. It did raise the concern of scientists and emergency planners about the impact of larger earthquake and consequent tsunami should there be any recurrence of such event. Despite becoming aware of tsunami hazard, there has been confusion about areas at risk and areas of safety. This chapter is an attempt to assess the vulnerability of part of Tamilnadu coast based on its geomorphological conditions and the impact of recent tsunami. The hazard maps have been generated and are intended for educational purposes, to improve awareness of tsunami hazards and to encourage responsible emergency planning efforts by illustrating the range of possible tsunami events.

This chapter is an attempt to introduce basic facts about earthquake generation and the role of earthquakes in triggering secondary geohazards. Earthquake, unlike manyother geohazards is yet to be fully understood towards occurrence and magnitude for better mitigation measures. Though unpredictibility of this hazard makes it dangerous, earthquakes seldom kill lives. Instead, poor ability of man-made structures against ground-shaking waves has been the real cause of life loss and damage to property in most of the earthquake incidences. Furthermore, earthquakes generate secondary geohazards such as landslide, failure of dams and reservoirs, etc. Thus, earthquake, as a natural hazard has its own characteristic way of potential impactand hence classifying vulnerability of different regions and creating awareness on potential impact among common public is essential.

INTRODUCTION

The term “earthquake” denotes “shaking/vibration/trembling/ quivering/shuddering/ wobbling of Earth”. Earthquake is the quickest and most unpredictable natural hazard. It is nothing but a series of suddenly generated elastic waves occurring in the Earth due to internal and/or external causes from shallow (few kilometers) to about 700 kilometers depth. It is a form of motion of wave energy transmitted through the surface layer (crust) of the Earth. One generalization that can be made out of scientific and mainstream media information about earthquakes is that, “earthquakes seldom kill; but the associated phenomena such as landslides, flooding, volcanic eruptions and collapse of natural and man-made structures cause the real damage to lives and property”. This chapter is an attempt to describe the basic elements of earthquakes and few mitigation measures.

Readers are introduced through this chapter to a geohazard (Landslide) that is most frequently publicized in mainstream media. Systematic examination of landslides and associated structural, tectonic, geological, geomorphological, meteorological, hydrogeological characteristics and land use pattern of Nilgiri hill area had indicated that steep slope, dipping of rockstowards slope, presence of clay layering in weathered rock types, events of continuous heavy rains, flooding on the slopes and improper land use practices play a major role in the genesis of landslides. Inaddition, ongoing seismotectonic activities in Southern Granulite Terrain of South India and reactivation of hidden blind shear zones were identified to be causative factors of recent increase of landslide occurrences.

INTRODUCTION

The downward movement of consolidated and unconsolidated soils and rock en masse from any geomorphic feature due to natural or manmade causes under the influence of gravity is termed as landslide (GSI, 1982). Nevertheless, presence of water, clay material, weak joints, favorable slope and many other characteristics also act as catalysis for this event. Landslides are one of the common geological hazards that affect countless population in India, especially in hilly terrains. Different reasons have been ascribed to different landslides of various terrains. Among them, reactivation of Bhavani shear zone (Prasannakumar and Llyod, 2007), high anthropo-geomorphic intervention (Basu, 2005), local geology, precipitation and slope (Bhattacharjee, 2005), presence of local vertical faults, triangular facets, abrupt deflection of streams and neotectonism

This chapter portrays flooding as a geohazard that can be managed with ease through simple and effective measures. Flooding is a recurrent geohazard that affects vast lands in India and elsewhere. Unlike many other geohazards, flooding event and probable area to be affected could be predicted with fairly accurate levels and hence, proper safety measures could be taken easily. However, as flash floods could not be predicted and the nature of flooding hazard that it brings in added danger of health hazard, crop damage and cutting off of supply and communication networks, flooding is as serious threat as any other geohazard. Scientifically designed urbanization and flood control measures are suggested for minimizing the potential impacts of flooding.

INTRODUCTION

Flooding is defined as a temporary submergence of a large area (that normally remains dry) under water by overflowing rivers and reservoirs as a result of heavy rains, high winds, cyclones, storm surges, tsunami, melting of snow or dam burst (Arya et al. 2005). The term “temporary submergence” denotes a time period ranging from few hours to about few months depending on type and location of flooding. Although flooding is a natural phenomenon that plays a major role in replenishing wetlands, recharging groundwater and supports agriculture, extreme demands on natural resources due to population growth, people and their property move closer to water bodies

Abstract

Geomorphology not only provides the panorama on the external architecture of the Earth surface, but also it is the record of the past geological events including the climate, especially of the Quaternary period. Detailed geomorphology map was prepared using the IRS LISS IV FCC and SRTM data showing the tectonic, denudational and fluvial landforms of Kollai hill, Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu. The geomorphic features showed that the Kollai hill can be divided into two as northern and southern blocks separated by a NE-SW active sinistral fault in the overall N-S rectangular hill. The integration all the geological , structural and geomorphic features show that the Kolli hill is under the grip of uplift in the south west with hinge towards north easterly. Because of this, the northern block/rim of the hill is fragmented into a series of East-West trending fracture/ fault swarms which are sympathetic tectonic grains to the Attur graben rimming the Kollai hill to its north. This phenomenon seems to control the overall resources and environment of the hill.

Introduction

The mountains are not only the store houses of natural resources like minerals, water, geothermal springs, forest & biomass etc., but also possesses unique & self-styled ecosystems drafting the mankind from the plains for comfort and livelihood. Further, the tourists are highly attracted by the mountain regions due to the ecosystems, climate and scenic beauty. Due to all these, the resources of the mountains are exponentially exploited during the recent 6–7 decades thus causing phenomenal depletion of natural resources and initiation of chains of environmental disorders, viz., deforestation triggered soil erosion, landslides, debris dumping along the slopes and foot hills, sedimentation of the downhill reservoirs & drainages, all of which in turn induce haphazard flooding. Hence, the Union and various Federal Governments have started working on the restoration of the ecosystems of their respective mountain regions in several nations. In the Indian sub- continent too, both under the Centrally sponsored schemes and the State funding, number of Hill Area Development Programmes have been initiated and going on especially in Himalayas, Easternghats and Westernghats. The state of Tamil Nadu possesses both Easternghats and Westernghats. While the Westernghats are found along the western part of the state with NNW-SSE orientation, the Easternghats represented by the Kollai- Pachhamalai hills, Shevroy - Chitteri – Kalrayan hills and Javadi hills, aligned in N-S direction, are traversing the Central part of Tamil Nadu. To comprehensively understand the resources, hazards potential, the ecosystems and also the modern geological processes which only control and tutor them, a geomatics based study was carried out in Kollai hills so that it can be used as a reference study to all those who are engaged in eco-restoration and hill area development programmes in India.

Safe harbour : Protection from the rough seas of regulation. Laws and regulations often include a safe harbour clause that sets out the circumstances in which otherwise regulated firms or individuals can do something without regulatory oversight or interference.

Sample : A selected subset of a population. A sample may be random or non-random and it may be representative or non-representative.

Satisficing : Settling for what is good enough, rather than the best that is possible. This may occur in any situation in which decision makers are trying to pursue more than one goal at a time. Classical economics and neo-classical economics assume that individuals, firms and governments try to achieve the optimum, best possible outcome from their decisions. Satisficing assumes they decide for each goal a level of achievement that would be good enough and try to find a way to achieve all of these sub-optimal goals at once. This approach to decision making is commonplace in behavioural economics. It can be regarded as a realist’s theory of how decisions are taken.

Savings : Any income that is not spent. Ultimately, savings are the source of investment in an economy, although domestic savings may be supplemented by capital from foreign savers or themselves be invested abroad. In an economic sense, savings include purchases of shares or other financial securities. However, many official measures of a country’s savings ratio—total savings expressed as a percentage of total income—leave out such financial transactions. At times when the demand for financial securities is unusually high, this can give a misleading impression of how much saving is taking place. How much individuals save varies significantly among different age groups (see life-cycle hypothesis) and nationalities. Everywhere, people of all ages save more as their income rises. The supply of savings rises when interest rates rise; a rise in interest rates causes demand for funds to invest to fall; a rise in demand for investment funds may cause interest rates, and thus the cost of capital, to rise. The level of savings is also influenced by changes in wealth (see wealth effect) and by taxation policies.

Mostly goats are reared in extensive small holder systems in developing countries. Goat breeding programmes in these environments have been limited, amongst other factors, by the non availability of pedigree and performance records for traits of economic importance. Cross-breeding and selection play an important role in increasing production in the goats.The development of breeding strategy for the improvement of goats should be based on genetic parameter estimates of economically important traits. Biological, cultural, statistical, socio-economical and management aspects should also be an important component of the selection process.

Goats were domesticated for the triple purpose of milk, meat and hair. Although the development of milk and hair producing animals did not go together, the development of meat and hair together worked very well and there are several breeds like Angora which in addition to providing fiber, are excellent meat animals too. The development of meat breeds was favored by natural selection. The characters which aided to this aspect were high fertility rates and the relatively more active life which goats were forced to lead in order to get enough of nutrition in poor agricultural lands, deserts etc. where these animals were domesticated. These animals were exposed to the vagaries of the environment resulting in decline in production traits such as milk, meat etc. But meat production was not. Most of the breeds of Asia and Africa are thus predominant meat breeds which have been improved little by conscious effort of breeders. Some of them still have slow growth rate and feed conversion efficiency. The preference for goat meat had eroded the dairy potential of Indian goats, as the fastest growing males are slaughtered for meat purposes and only poor animals are retained for breeding purposes. Careful selection and utilisation of breeding males can alleviate this problem to a large measure and animals for both milk and meat production can be developed.There are several goat breeds that have good potential for meat production. Generally, there have been limited planned selection and breeding programs carried out by animal scientists to improve rate of growth and carcass composition of goats. As a result, many goat breeds deposit less intramuscular and subcutaneous fat. In the past, domesticated meat animals were selected for heavier mature weight and greater rate of gain. Selection for such parameters usually resulted in undesirable characteristics because some of the animals had not only gained weight faster and were heavier at maturity, but also had more subcutaneous and intramascular fat. Since consumers currently prefer leaner red meat, the livestock industry is making significant changes to satisfy these demands. Goat meat has unique attributes which will be beneficial to the present day consumer. Goat meat has 10% more lean carcass than cattle. At the same time the fat content is lower by 47% than beef. These qualities of the goat meat need to be emphasized so that the general public can become aware of this useful product.

Livestock economics and marketing plays an important role in the economy of farmers in the country. Marketing of goats and goat products suffers from many drawbacks such as involvement of middlemen, avoidable marketing cost, and unnecessary transportation, mortality of animals during transit leading to exploitation of both producers and the consumers. Goat keeping and marketing is fraught with risks. Risks in goat keeping can be managed or reduced but cannot be completely eliminated. Some of the precautions needed include following the recommended systems of management and health care, use good feeding and vaccination schedules and master the art of marketing. Marketing of goat is under the hand of unorganized sector and middleman oriented. Goat producers themselves are most often involved in informal market systems which lead to underestimation of goats’ contribution to the rural and national economy. Goats from villages are sold to middleman or butcher or in the local goat market that go to the slaughterhouses of organized or unorganized sector. Male goat is sold at the age of 12-15 months and at higher prices. However, farmer grows the male goat to sell in festive season for more profit. Market Goat price is highly variable. It differs from region to region. In area where good breeds of goat found, the prices are more for these animals. It also depends on health, body status, production potential and market demand for meat/milk of animals. Infact, male goat is sacrificed before God in many places. Goat market price gets higher during the festive season of Bakrid. “Bakra bech rahe ho ya sona,” a customer was heard exclaiming at Nai Sadak Mandi, considered the biggest goat market in Kanpur. During Bakri Id, male goat is sold even at the cost of Rs 30-35 thousand. Similar stories are commonplace in most other goat markets. Lame and ailing goats are not purchased by customers for sacrificial purpose. For this purpose goats which are at least a year old are purchased. They are recognised by their two teeth.If animal is young one (1-2 yrs old & or pregnant), then price is higher than old animal. Female goats are sold to market for slaughter at the end of their productive life (Spent goat. Normally goats are sold on lot basis and not on body weight basis. With advancing knowledge, the farmers are now demanding price on body weight basis.

Dogs, Cats and birds are pet animals.

Chromosome number of dogs-78

Good Angora breed yield wool of 2-2 ½ “ an average. On record, 8” of wool is also obtained.

Sister Chromatid Exchange and Homologous Recombination

The staining of harlequin chromosomes can reveal recombination between sister chromatids

The holliday model describes a molecular mechanism for the recombination process

More recent models have refined the molecular steps of homologous recombination

Various proteins are necessary to facilitate homologous recombination

Gene conversion may result from DNA gap repair synthesis or DNA mismatch repair

Genetic Analysis of Diseases

A genetic basis for a human diseases may be suggested from a variety of observations

Inheritance patterns of human diseases may be determined via pedigree analysis

Many genetic disorders are heterogeneous

Genetic testing can identify many inherited human diseases

Prions are infectious particles that alter protein function posttranslationally

Origin of Species

A biological species is a group of reproductively isolated individuals

Speciation usually occurs via a branching process called cladogenesis

Divergent evolution can be allopatric, parapatric, or sympatric

Müntzing was able to re-create an allotetraploid species

Evolution can proceed gradually or be punctuated by periods of rapid change

When Allele Frequencies Stay Constant

The Importance of Knowing Allele Frequencies

Population genetics concerns the study of allele frequencies in a population.

Genes in a population comprise the gene pool.

Gene flow is movement of alleles between populations.

Microevolution reflects changes in gene frequencies in populations, which can be traced using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.

Allele frequencies are affected by mutation, migration, genetic drift, selection, and non-random mating.

Meaning and Importance

Genetic purity denotes the percentage of seeds (by weight) belonging to the variety/hybrid under certification. It is one of the primary criteria of seed quality. The efforts of plant breeders become fruitful only when sufficient quantities of good quality seeds of improved varieties/hybrids reach farmers / growers. This is necessary to take all round care at every step of seed multiplication before the seed is delivered for marketing. Hence, genetic purity testing is of critical importance not only to farmers but also to plant breeders, seed producers as well as quality control enforcing agencies. Increasing emphasis on hybrid cultivars due to their better performance and quality produce, more money and expertise have been put in further research of hybrid development. In this context, protection of parental lines is assuming critical importance and for that purpose, several breeding institutes do adopt various strategies for identification, characterization and protection of their parental lines as to avoid pilferage and misuse of their proprietary lines by other organizations. Use of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other molecular markers for evaluating seed purity of F₁ hybrids and their parental lines are closely related, thus, helps in assessing contamination of F₁ seeds even with the seeds of sib (inbred seed and seed from self-pollination of parental lines). For genetic purity testing of hybrids seeds, it is imperative that parental lines of hybrid be adequately characterized on the basis of maximum number of distinguishable descriptors (morphological, biochemical or molecular markers).

Cabbage

Genetic Resources

Historical evidences indicates that modern hard-headed cabbage cultivars are descended from wild non-heading Brassica originating in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. The ancient Greeks held these early forms of cabbage in high regard and believed that they were a gift from the God. The Clelts and, the Romans disseminated cabbage throughout Europe. In fact, the Latin name Brassica is derived from the Celtic word bresi meaning cabbage. Over a period of centuries, hard-headed cabbage types evolved in northern Europe, while loose-heading, heat resistant types developed further in South. Cabbage was first introduced USA when the French explorer Jacques Cartier planted seed in Canada on his voyage in 1541. Cabbage is grown for the thickened main bud called head. The Portuguese introduced cabbage much earlier than cauliflower. There are reports that it was also grown during the Mughal period. In India, much varieties of cabbage are not available. However, genetic resources of cabbage for high yield and resistance to biotic stress are given in Table1.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ means the application of physical, biological, chemical agents to the seed in order to enhance the physical, genetical, biochemical and health qualities of seed.
2. _____ coined the term seed priming.
3. _____ is the impregnation of the needy substance into seed through imbibition phase.
4. In paddy, seed fortification is done with _____ chemical.
5. In groundnut, seed fortification is done with _____ chemical.

1. Important objective of biotechnology in agriculture sector is

   a) To increase the nitrogen content

   b) To decrease the seed number

   c) To produce pest resistant varieties of plants

   d) To increase the plant weight

2. The main technology involved in agriculture biotechnology is called

   a) Tissue culture

   b) Plant breeding

   c) Transformation

   d) DNA replication

1. “Statistics is a science of calculations and averages”, the definition was given by :

   a) R.A. Fisher

   b) Boddington

   c) Bowley

   d) Anderson

2. “Statistics is a study of population, variation and methods of data reduction” is the definition of statistics according to:

   a) A.L. Bowley

   b) R.A. Fisher

   c) Boddington

   d) None of these

Seed treatment is one of the important activities of the shop floor. The seed should be treated with various insecticides, fungicides and additives to protect it up to establishment. Some timesenhance quality parameters like vigour which is critical for better establishment. Since vegetable seeds are of very high value and low volume, investment on seed treatment will yield better not only for the seed seller but to the grower also. More number of plants in a field brings moreincome per unit area. Hence the farmer or grower who buys seed is ready to bear the cost of seed treatment making it an important aspect of seed processing.

Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or both to the seeds to disinfect(deep seated) and disinfest (over seed coat) them from seed borne or soil borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers treating seed for enhancing quality by subjecting the seed to solar energy exposure or immersion in hot water or dry heat treatment or priming also.

Seeds are having a ability to survive and start a new generation when favourable conditions exists. However like other form of life, they cannot retain their viability indefinitely and eventually deteriorate and die. To retain viability and germination it is important to store in proper storage. Seeds harvested may not be useful for packaging thus making it to store for a period till the need for packaging arises. Seed storage is very critical task of seed processing. The success of seed processing is determined by safe storage. Since the vegetable seeds are expensive need modern techniques of storage. Based on the seed shelf life or longevity vegetable seeds can be divided into two types:

Orthodox Seeds : Orthodox seeds are long-lived seeds. They can be successfully dried to moisture contents as low as 5% without injury and are able to tolerate freezing temperatures. Most orthodox seeds come from annual temperate species adapted to open fields. At physiological maturity they contain moisture content of 30 – 50%. Most of the vegetable seeds are orthodox and hence there is lot of scope for proper storage. E.g-Tomato (6.0 %) and Peppers (7.0%

Recalcitrant Seeds : They are short - lived seeds, which cannot be dried to moisture contents below 30% without injury and are unable to tolerate freezing. They are difficult to ore successfully because of their high moisture content encourages microbial contamination and results in more rapid seed deterioration. Storage of these seeds at subzero temperatures causes the formation of ice crystals, which disrupts cell membranes and causes freezing injury. These seeds are from perennial trees in the mois t tropics such as coconut, coffee, cacao, citrus etc. These seeds mature and exists in their fruits and are covered with fleshy or juicy ariloid layers and impermeable testa. At physiological maturity they contain more moisture content (50- 70%) than orthodox seeds, even though their embryos are only about 15 % of the size of an orthodox seed embryo. In general recalcitrant seeds never go into dormancy but instead continue their development and progress towards germination.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) based inputs (Most of the ITK’s needs scientific validation before large scale adoption)

Is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people through the accumulation of experiences, informal experiments, and intimate understanding of the environment in a given culture (Rajasekaran, 1993). Learning from ITK can improve understanding of local condition and provide a productive context for activities designed to help the communities. In addition, the use of ITK’s assures that the end user of specific agricultural development projects are involved in developing technologies appropriate to their needs’. Yet, ITK is still an underutilized resource in the development activities. It needs to be intensively and extensively studied, and incorporated into formal research and extension practices to make agriculture and rural development strategies more sustainable.

Many of our indigenous practices in agriculture and allied fields have been replaced by the so-called modern technologies and they have become obsolete, especially among the younger generations. Now these indigenous practices are endangered ones and these are a possibility for them to become extinct particularly during this era of globalization, liberalization and commercialization. Now the need has come to re-examine and then gradually re-introduce the effective traditional technologies of crop production.

Therefore, there is a need to systematically document the ITK as they are the unwritten body of knowledge. There is no systematic record to describe what is, what it does, how it does, means of changing it, its operations, it boundaries and its applications. It is held in different brains, languages and skills in as many groups, cultures and environments. Tamil Nadu is also a treasure land of indigenous practices in agriculture. However, only a few attempts have been undertaken by social scientists to document the available indigenous agricultural practices but none has evaluated scientifically. The documented ITK practices are given below.