eChapters

2.1. Chromosome number

• Basic chromosome number for the genus Coffea is n=11

• Coffea canephora-diploid (2n=2x=22)

• Coffea arabica (2n=4x=44 )

2.2. Origin and distribution

• Original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from Harar and native population is derived from Ethiopia (Abyssinia Plateau) with distinct nearby populations in Sudan and Kenya.

• From where, it was taken to Arabia in 11^th century.

• From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba Budan in the 17^th Century and were raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.

• British planters established large coffee estates near Chikmagalur (Karnataka) in 1826, in Manantody (Wynad) and Shevoroys in 1830 and Nilgiris in 1839.

• Almost the entire production is shared by Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, smaller production in Andhra Pradesh, north eastern states and Madhya Pradesh.

• Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for 70% of total coffee production and 60% of the area

• Kozhikode, Waynad, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Palakkad are the chief producing districts in Kerala.

Coffee is a much sought after beverage and plantation crop grown in about 80 countries across the globe of which over 50 are considered to be major producers. Coffee is also the second largest traded commodity in the world, next to petroleum products and is popularly referred to as “Brown Gold”. Coffee contributes substantially to the national exchequers of the producing countries through export earnings and also generates employment to about 120 million people in production, processing and trading, worldwide. The economic relevance of coffee is underlined by the fact that it generates significant income throughout the supply chain, representing a gross added value of over USD 458 billion annual (Belo Horizonte Declaration, International Coffee Organization, Sept. 2013). The annual revenue of the coffee industry alone is estimated to exceed USD 200 billion. At origin, production of coffee provides livelihood for up to 25 million farmers and their families. (Coffee Development report, ICO, 2019).

Caffeine is a major pharmacologically active compound in coffee and it is a mild central nervous system stimulant. ³. In addition caffeine is added to many popular carbonated drinks and is also a component of a number of pharmacological preparations and over-the-counter medicines. A typical cup of coffee provides approximately 75–100 mg caffeine. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in its ‘Scientific Opinion on the Safety of Caffeine’ concluded that ‘habitual intakes of caffeine up to 400 mg per day do not give rise to safety concerns for non-pregnant adults. They also advised that intakes up to 200 mg per day do not give concern for those who are pregnant or breastfeeding.

Two species mostly grown worldwide

Arabica coffee is reported to have originated in the tropical rain forests in Ethiopian highlands while Robusta is a native of the humid tropical lowlands of Central Africa, probably, Uganda. The major coffee producing countries
across the World are distributed between 23°N and 23°S of the equator. Beyond these latitudinal limits, temperature becomes a major limiting factor as coffee plants are sensitive to extreme temperature regimes. Thus within
the latitudes, altitude becomes a major factor. In areas, nearer to the equator, coffee plants require higher altitudes when compared to farther north and south (6.1 plate). The world’s largest coffee producer is Brazil with around 30% of total world output of coffee. Columbia comes in second with around two thirds of Brazil’s production. India is the sixth largest (after Brazil, Columbia, Vietnam, Indonesia and Ethiopia) producer of coffee. Coffee is reportedly introduced into the Western Ghats regions of South India around 1600 AD. However, commercial cultivation of coffee was opened in South India with the British enterprise and investment during late 1820s. Coffee occupies an important position among the plantation crops in India. It is cultivated mainly in the traditional States of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and to some extent in non-traditional areas viz., Andhra Pradesh and Orissa as well as in North Eastern States viz., Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. Coffee in India is unique. Almost all coffee plantation are grown under the shade of forest/planted trees, where as it is grown under open conditions in all the major producing countries viz., Brazil, Vietnam and Columbia.

Coffee (Coffea species) occupies a pride of place, in the international trade of commodities, next to petroleum in trade volume and money value. Coffee is also the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating & refreshing beverage. Its production forms the backbone of more than 60 developing nations. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

India produces two types of coffee i.e. arabica, Coffea arabica and robusta, C. canephora. The former has higher market value than the latter. Coffee is cultivated mainly in the Southern parts of India with Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu being the major coffee producing states. Some of the major pests which limits the cultivation of coffee are described below:

White stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes Cheverolat (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

It is a serious pest of Arabica coffee in India. Alternate host plants include Robusta coffee, teak and Indian olive tree. Eggs are milky white when freshly laid but turns yellow later on. These are elongate, oval in shape and measures 1.25 –1.28 mm in length and 0.46 – 0.5 mm in width. The adult is a dark brown longicorn beetle (16mm long) and bears several white markings on the elytra (Plate 14c). The pale yellow stout full grown grub broader towards the anterior most region, measures 20-30 mm in length.

Coffee is an important cash and export crop for small-scale farmers. The crop suffers heavy yield losses due to damage caused by a wide range of insect pests
 
White stem-borer : Xylotrechus quadripes : Cerambycidae

This is one of the important and serious pests of arabica coffee. Other types are also attacked to a slightly lesser extent. The adult is a dark-brown longicorn beetle having several white markings on the elytra and thorax.

This chapter examines how people perceive, process and respond to information in technology-rich work environments. Cognitive ergonomics is introduced as the study of mental processes—including attention, memory, perception, reasoning and decision-making—in human-system interaction. The chapter explains how excessive mental workload, digital interruptions, poorly organized information and confusing interfaces can increase fatigue and errors. Principles for designing clear displays, intuitive controls, effective feedback and manageable information flows are presented. Particular attention is given to concentration, situational awareness, decision support and error prevention. The chapter demonstrates that modern workplaces must support both the physical body and the cognitive capacity of users to achieve safe, reliable and productive performance.

• These are the injuries occurred to male animal at the time of natural mating. These injuries do not occur only to genital organs but also to other organs or muscles. • Most coital injuries occur to male animal with good libido (high testosterone level) but having aggressiveness and poor experience of mating. Such animals tend to quick response in the presence of estrous female. Some of the coital injuries are: 1. Balanitis and Posthitis • Trauma to the penis and prepuce which later on leads to infection and inflammation. • This occurs especially in young inexperienced bulls with great sexual desire • Adhesion may lead to phimosis or paraphimosis condition • IBR-IPV infection from cow genitalia after mating results in pus formation and necrosis of the penis and prepuce. • Prepucial eversion leads to laceration and bleeding.

Cold chain logistics refers to the technology and processes that ensure the safe transportation of temperature-sensitive goods throughout the supply chain. It is deeply rooted in scientific principles, assessing the relationship between temperature and perishability to maintain product integrity.
Any item categorized as “perishable” typically requires cold chain management. This includes food products such as meat, seafood, and fresh produce, as well as medical supplies and pharmaceuticals.
Although, modern transportation is a relatively recent development, the  practice of moving temperature-sensitive products dates back to the late 1700s when the British used ice to preserve fish. By the late 1800s, ice was widely used to transport perishables. Dairy products were shipped from rural areas to urban markets. Cold chain technology has long been a crucial component of global trade and will continue to play a vital role in the future.
COLD CHAIN LOGISTICS
A cold chain is a specialized supply chain designed for handling perishable and temperature-sensitive goods, commonly referred to as cool cargo. These include fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, and other delicate products. To preserve the quality and integrity of these perishable items, specific lowtemperature conditions must be maintained throughout the supply chain. Certain products require refrigeration; others must be kept frozen, while some demand extreme conditions—often referred to as an ultralow chain or deep freeze. Any failure to maintain the appropriate temperature can result in product spoilage, compromising safety and quality, and ultimately leading to significant financial losses.

India is bestowed with huge production of fruits, vegetables, cereals, millets, sugarcane along with meat production, milk production, fish production and poultry. Despite such a huge production in India, owing to perishable nature of these produce around 25-30 percent of the produce is being lost as post harvest loss. The one important reason for this may be the production of the crops are season specific and during the peak season the production is more while demand for consumption is less. It may be possible to cut down these losses to great extent, if these produces may be transported from the produces states to those who are not producing due to agro-climatic reasons. So for making transportation of the perishable a successful venture in decreasing post harvest loss, there must be proper cool chain management facilities both at producing site as well as marketing place. The aim of the cool chain management must be to keep the produce in saleable condition during entire storage periods. Some products are stored for short period whereas fresh fruits, vegetables require cold storage. Foods before keeping into the storage room need some pre-storage treatments for better results.

Introduction

The cold chain is a meticulously managed series of actions using specialized equipment to ensure products remain within a specific low-temperature range from production to consumption (ASHRAE, 2024; IIR, 2024). This unbroken sequence encompasses refrigerated production, storage, and distribution activities, safeguarding the safety and quality of perishable and thermo-sensitive goods like agricultural commodities (such as fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, etc.), processed foods and pharmaceuticals (Aung and Chang, 2014; Awan, 2023). For climacteric fruits like bananas, custard apples, apples, pears, tomatoes, mangoes, and avocados, cold storage facilitates controlled ripening, extending the time between harvest and consumption. Cold chain management, integral to the overall supply chain, requires expertise in maintaining temperature, air quality, and adherence to regulatory standards. Any disruption in this process can lead to product spoilage and financial implications (FAO, 2019). The management of the cold chain system is crucial for preserving the freshness, taste, and nutritional value of fruits from harvest to consumption (Kader, 2003).

19.1 Introduction

Food safety is one of the important factor for food industry, regulatory agencies and consumers. Nowadays consumers are demanding food which is safe and of high quality in terms of nutrition due to a healthier life style. Food safety refers to all those hazards, that make food injurious to the health of the consumer and it is not negotiable. Food may be contaminated physically, chemically or microbiologically, mainly microbial contamination is of high concern in the food industries. Various pathogenic and spoilage causing microorganisms, viruses, insects can deteriorate the food products and cause food borne illnesses. Therefore, there is a need to eliminate these undesirable microorganisms from the food industries to ensure food safety to the consumer. Various methods are available to eliminate these undesirable microorganisms such as thermal technologies like pasteurization, dehydration, retort processing, freezing etc. and non thermal technologies like microwave heating, Pulsed Electric Field (PEF), High Pressure Processing (HPP), Pulsed Light Technology, Ohmic Heating, Ultra sonics, Pulsed X-Rays. But these technologies have certain disadvantages like thermal technologies lowers the nutritional value and leads to unwanted changes in the foods' sensory attributes of the food products whereas non thermal technologies retain better nutritional and sensory quality of food than thermal technologies but they are cost effective, required specialised equipments and trained personnel. Cold plasma technology (CPT) is a non-thermal green technology used now-a-days for variety of application in various industries especially in food industry. It is proposed to be an alternative method for eliminating microorganism from the fresh produce. This technology does not require extreme process conditions and can be used as a good alternative source for food preservation without affecting its nutritional and sensory attributes. Plasma is an ionized gas, consisting of active species like positively and negatively charged ions, electrons, free radicals, and gas atoms, metastable and quanta of electromagnetic radiation (photons). When the energy source is turned off, active species used to disappear immediately, therefore cold plasma technology is environmental friendly and fulfilling all ecological standards. Based on the properties of plasma, it can be applied in various fields like electronics, life sciences, textile, packaging and food industries. In food industries, it is showing promising application by retaining the nutritional, functional, and sensory characteristics thus ensuring the fresh appearance of the food product and satisfying the consumer need.

Thermal heating methods are used from long time to decontaminate the food products from microorganism and therefore increase its shelf life and ultimately make the product safe for human consumption. But these methods diminish the sensory, physicochemical and nutritional properties of food (Barba et al., 2012). Also, the cost of generation of heat in manufacture of food product make the product costlier in thermal processing and also create environmental issue.

Cold plasma technology represents an innovative non-thermal approach for improving food safety while minimizing undesirable changes associated with conventional heat treatments. This chapter introduces the fundamental principles of cold plasma and explains how reactive species generated during plasma treatment can contribute to microbial inactivation and food decontamination. It examines major plasma-generation methods, including dielectric barrier discharge, corona discharge and microwave plasma systems. The chapter highlights the potential of cold plasma for preserving nutritional and sensory characteristics while reducing microbial hazards. It also considers technological challenges such as treatment uniformity, interactions between plasma and food matrices and the need for process optimization and regulatory validation for wider industrial adoption.

The technique of preserving fruit by the use of low temperature dates from the eighteenth century with the first use of ice house in 1750. Later in 1800s commercial cold storages have come up for the storage of perishables like meat, dairy and fruit products.  The main change took place in the cold store in recent years has been the introduction of multi temperature chambers with humidity control for specific products. Cold preservation can be either refrigeration or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at 4-7^ºC. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18^ºC or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

6.1. INTRODUCTION

Low temperature is one of the major environmental factors that limit the plant growth. Many plants of tropical origin suffer cold damage when exposed to temperature below 20ºC (Graham and Patterson, 1982, Andrews, 1987). Cold temperature in crop plants are compounded by cold snap– a lower than usual drop in temperature that causes the crop to fail. Low temperature in growing season may reduce germination, retard vegetative growth by inducing metabolic imbalances and can delay or prevent productive development. Each plant species has an optimum range of temperature for its normal growth and development. It varies among the genotypes within a species, the specific temperature also depends on the growth stage and development of the particular genotype.

41.1 Introduction

Fishes adapted to live at a temperature ranging from 10-200C constitute coldwater f ish. Upland water at high altitudes in the mountains and spring water at low elevations in temperate regions remain cooler than the rest, allowing coldwater f isheries to thrive in these areas. Such bodies of water, which include several hill streams, pools, lakes and reservoirs, are abundant in the Himalayan and Deccan plateau regions of peninsular India. These are fed by either melting snow or springs in the north or rain on the Deccan plateau.

I. FILL UPS

1. The botanical name of radish is _____.
2. The botanical name of knol-khol is _____.
3. The botanical name of cauliflower is _____.
4. The botanical name of cabbage is _____.
   1. The botanical name of carrot is _____.

Cabbage

Cabbage is an important crop in USA, Northern European countries, Russia, Japan & Australia and its breeding occurs here, but Holland and Japan are the major breeding countries. It is also being cultivated in India and crop improvement work is taken up in India also.

Origin and General Botany: Historical evidence indicates that modern hard head cabbage cultivars descended from wild non headed Brassica originated in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. The Celts and Late Romans are responsible for spread cabbage throughout Europe. Latin name Brassica derived from Celtic word “bresic” meaning cabbage. Over a period hard headed evolved in Northern Europe and loose headed and heat resistant types evolved in South Europe. Cabbage was first introduced to America in 1541 by French explorer Jacques Cartier (planted seeds in Canada) and earlier colonist introduced the crop in to India also. Round headed types-are evolved earlier than flat (evolved in 17th or 18th century).  Broccoli, Cauliflower, Brussels Sprout, Collards, Kale, and Kohlrabi are all readily intercrossed members of this species.