eChapters

The most important root and tuber crops cultivated on a worldwide scale are potato (Solanum tuberosum), cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), yams (Dioscorea spp.) and taro (Colocasia esculenta), but there are many others that are of regional, national or local importance, in a total of over a dozen dicot and monocot families. Most of these originated in tropical or subtropical areas and are mainly used as sources of carbohydrates. Many minor root and tuber crops, such as turmeric (Curcuma longa) and arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea, Tacca leontopedaloides), are also used in folk medicine and as spices (Sastrapradja et al., 1981). All these crops are vegetatively propagated. There are also vegetatively (or clonally) propagated crops that are not roots or tubers, e.g. bananas and sugarcane. A selection of the more important crops is given in Table 13.1 (Huaman et al., 1995).

The word data means facts or information, specifically collected by the researcher through observation or measurement from which meaningful conclusions are drawn. Data may be of qualitative or quantitative types:
Qualitative data are descriptive/qualitative in nature and can be statistically analyzed only after processing and after having them classified into some appropriate categories.
Quantitative data are expressed in the form of numerals and are amenable to statistical analysis readily.
Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, specifically for the designated study.

Samples for toxicological analysis are usually taken during post-mortem examination. In suspected cases of poisoning the following specimens should be sent for chemical analysis.

Bone marrow biopsy
Indications
    •    In blood abnormalities in which it is impossible to confirm a diagnosis by means of peripheral blood examination.
    •    In conditions like leucopenia, non-regenerative anaemia and thrombocytopenia.
    •    As a confirmatory diagnosis of leukaemia and differentiating it from leukemoid reactions.

Cerebrospinal fluid is found in the ventricles, cistern of brain, canal of spinal cord and in space between piamater and arachnoid. The main source of CSF is choroids plexus in the ventricles of brain. CSF is derived from the blood plasma and therefore, it has qualitatively the same composition. But the discrepancies between the ionic concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid and blood plasma indicate that the fluid is not a simple filtrate but a product of active secretary mechanism. Functionally, CSF protects and nourishes the parenchyma and maintains homeostasis. Diagnosis of diseases of CNS posses a challenge to the clinician and confirmation of tentative diagnosis based on clinical manifestations requires cytological and biochemical examination of CSF. Removal and laboratory examination of CSF are indicated whenever there is clinical evidence suggesting CNS disease.

Collection of Rumen Liquor Rumen fluid/liquor can be collected through various methods such as stomach tube, or rumenocentesis. Collection of rumen fluid in clinical practice is indicated for the diagnosis of reticulo-ruminal diseases as well as for therapeutic transfaunation. Stomach Tube Passing of stomach tube ( Fig.77) is a traditional method of collection of rumen fluid. Passing of stomach tube in bovines is a routine procedure. The animal is restrained in the cattle crush using head bail with or without halter and a rope. Equipment: Flexible stomach tube, water based lubricant, appropriate size mouth gag, vacuum pump,

Examination of rumen fluid was introduced for clinical diagnosis during the 1950’s. The stomach of ruminant harbor beneficial microbes required for digestion of feed consumed. Stomach maintains an ideal environment (pH 6.8 to 7.2 and temperature 39-40°C) for growth and proliferation of these microfloras. In any of the ruminal disorder this homeostasis get upset resulting in shifting of microbial population (Gram negative to Gram positive) and formation and accumulation of toxic products of abnormal metabolism. This further leads to an array of pathologic process in the body. Hence physical, microbial and biochemical examination of rumen fluid can be considered as an important diagnostic tool for wide variety of disorders.

The study of Veterinary Anatomy is an integral part of Veterinary Science as it evolved as a keystone of veterinary education through ages. Osteology (study of bones) is the essential part of the anatomy teaching curriculum. The bones are unsurpassed in the ability to provide the information on the three dimensional form and architecture of the body. It also helps in understanding the disposition and relations of soft tissues along with the course of neurovascular structures in that region. For osteological study, the bones are collected from the carcasses and are duly processed. Bone preparation involves soft tissue removal, cleaning and bleaching of bones and joints, articulation and labeling. The skin, visceral organs and the maximum possible amount of flesh adhering to the bones are removed by knife. Such bones are called wet bones. The whole skeleton is disarticulated; however, the pedal bones are left with the hoof. In case of skull, the mandible is dismembered and the mouth parts are removed. The tongue is carefully sliced to locate the hyoid bone. It is separated at the hyoid process of the petrous temporal bone. The brain is lacerated and goosed out of cranial cavity with a stick through the foramen magnum. The eyeball is carefully extirpated without any injury to the orbit. The nasal cavity is left untouched with the turbinates and cartilages intact. Following steps are involved in processing of bones and preparation of skeleton.
A. Maceration
B. Degreasing
C. Bleaching
D. Varnish
E. Categorization of bones
F. Preparation of articulated skeleton

Soil sample collection is the first and most important step for soil quality analysis. A soil sample collected with due care and proper procedure is essential for getting reliable result of the analysis. The sample should represent the field and for practical purposes, an area of about 0.5 hectare is considered as one sampling unit. In case of conspicuous variation observed in the field in terms of texture, colour, slope etc, separate samples should be collected from areas differing in these attributes. In other words, sample should be collected from an area in the field with similar characteristics as seen through normal visual observation. Sampling should thus be avoided from areas like near trees, permanent vegetations, manure pits, manure piles or recently fertilized fields.

Soil Sampling procedure

1. For a particular field unit, one composite soil sample is prepared out of the samples collected from 7-8 spots distributed across the field unit. The entire field is covered by moving in a zig-zag manner from each sampling spot.
2. For each sampling point or spot, scrapping off the surface litter such as grasses or crop residues is done. Then, a “V” shaped pit of 15-20 cm length and of equal width is made. Depth of sampling depends upon the requirement and on the type of crop. For field crops like paddy, wheat etc, samples are collected from 15 cm depth. From the “V” shaped pits, take outslice of ½ inch thickness from both sides of the exposed pit surfaces from top to bottom.
3. The soil samples so collected from the 7-8 points are mixed thoroughly by hand and then is reduced to about 500 g by quartering process. The quartering process consists of a procedure in which the entire soil mass is divided into four quarters; the two opposite ones are discarded and the remaining two are remixed. This process is repeated till about 500g soil is obtained.

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers about the peculiarities of the soils and how much of fertilizers should be applied for better crop production.

A composite soil, of course, can not be moved to into a laboratory. The value of the laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each soil sample needs to be a fair representative of the specific area or horizon worth sampling.

If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area, pool them and sub-sample it so as to get a sample of desired size. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a profile which is typical of the soil of the surrounding area.

3.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Define primary data and secondary data and their applications in various contexts;
ii) Identify and briefly explain the various methods used for collecting primary data;
iii) Recognize the significance of secondary data and its advantages and disadvantages;
iv) Create a pie chart, histogram, bar chart, column chart, and line chart using appropriate data sets;
v) Evaluate the advantages and limitations of each data presentation method.

3.2 Introduction

Presently, the role of data has transcended from mere numbers and figures to a powerful driving force behind informed decision-making, efficient problem solving, and insightful analysis. This chapter delves into the crucial aspects of data collection and presentation and it will help in unraveling their significance across a spectrum of professional fields. The chapter will help to explore the fundamental concepts of data collection and its differentiation into primary and secondary categories. We will learn about the methods employed to gather firsthand data and from existing sources. Furthermore, we will delve into the realm of data presentation, understanding how various visualization techniques such as pie charts, histograms, bar and column charts, and line charts transform data into digestible and meaningful representations

Collection and preservation of insect specimens is the best way to study their morphology, habitat, distribution, host relationship and many other interesting features. Killing, mounting and arranging the insects in some particular sequence creates much more interest than merely studying museum specimens or looking at pictures. A collection of varied types of insects goes a long way in increasing the knowledge and understanding of the taxonomy of insects.

Not all insects are found in every season and in every place. Their presence mostly depend on the availability of the host, as well as the climatic conditions. Though many insects can be collected in any season, they  are  naturally  abundant  in  moist,  warm  weather,  especially  in the  spring and early summer. To get a good collection, insects have to be collected continuously in all the seasons of the year, from all plants and plant parts, from stored grains and food products. Several types of butterflies, moths, bees, wasps, beetles and flies can be collected from flowers, which they frequent to collect nectar. Many insects can be collected from leaves, stems, fruits, roots and such plant parts. Many insects are found in water and on water plants. Some are found in barks of trees or in decomposing organic matter. These insects have to be collected from different localities where they are found. Most of the insects are diurnal, while some of them are nocturnal. Some are attracted to light. So, a knowledge of the habits of insects is important in making a good collection. Sometimes better specimens may be obtained by collecting the immature stages and rearing them into adults wherever possible. Keeping records of pest collections may help Entomologists to forecast largescale pest occurrence.

Why Make an Insect Collection?

An insect collection helps develop personal identification skills. 

An insect collection can be used to display insects or insect features so that others may learn about them.

An insect collection can allow you to better observe details of insect structures and how they function.

HELMINTHS Collection of parasites Fresh helminth parasites should be collected, as far as possible to achieve better results in staining. This can best be done by conducting a post-mortem examination of the animal for which the procedure given below should be followed. On opening the body and before removal of the viscera, examine the body cavity (for free lying parasites, e.g. Setaria), subcutaneous tissue (for Parafilaria and Hypoderma larvae) and the surfaces of internal organs for spot or nodules that might contain parasites. Remove them for histopathological examination (in 10 % formalin). Remove the visceral organs separately and place them in different enamel trays.

HELMINTHS 
Collection of parasites

Fresh helminth parasites should be collected, as far as possible to achieve better results in staining. This can best be done by conducting a post­mortem examination of the animal for which the procedure given below should be followed. On opening the body and before removal of the viscera, examine the body cavity (for free lying parasites, e.g. Setaria), subcutaneous tissue (for Parafilaria and Hypoderma larvae) and the surfaces of internal organs for spot or nodules that might contain parasites. Remove them for histopathological examination (in 10 % formalin). Remove the visceral organs separately and place them in different sized enamel trays.

Precise collection and processing of soil sample is the first and foremost step for carrying out any soil study, therefore it is essential to collect the coil sample very accurately keeping in view the variations in slope, colour and texture of the soil management aspects. Soil sampling should be avoided from non-representative sites like recently fertilized plots, bunds, channels, marshy tracts and spots near trees, wells, compost piles etc. It should be kept in mind that erroneous samples will never yield accurate result in spite of very improved method of analysis. The depth of sampling may vary according to the need of soil study and extent of rhizosphere. However, in general the sampling depth for field crops is the plough layer (0 - 15 cm) but it could be up to one meter or as per the purpose of the study. Soil samples in dry farming areas should be taken depth wise as the roots of the crops in this conditions reaches to deeper layers in search of water and nutrients.

Mainly two types of soil samples (disturbed and undisturbed) are used for determining the physical properties of soil. The disturbed soil samples are used for determination of particle size distribution, particle density, aggregation, column studies for diffusion-dispersion coefficients and soil-water diffusivity. Whereas, undisturbed (core) soil samples are used for the estimation of bulk density, porosity, retention and transmission characteristics of air and water.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

1.1. Sources of Error in Soil Chemical Analysis

Different sources of error involved starting from soil sampling to chemical analysis of a sample can be divided into three main groups:

1. Sampling error : This error results from variability among the different samples drawn from same soil unit with respect to the objective of sampling.
2. Sub-sampling error : This error is due to variability introduced among sub samples of the same soil sample.
3. Analytical error : This error introduced due to variability from one chemical determination to another on same sub sample.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

Introduction
Similar to the procurement of raw materials in a factory, milk collection is one of the initial and essential steps for a milk processing or marketing company. A successful milk collection system combines efficient route planning, quality control, and effective farmer engagement. By prioritizing technology integration, cold chain management, and regulatory compliance, dairy companies can establish a reliable and sustainable milk procurement system that meets both operational and quality standards.
India dairy sector depends on smallholder individual milk producers, each contributing between one to a few litres of milk per day. Typically, milk production takes place in rural areas, while the demand is concentrated in urban centres. However, rural producers often face significant marketing challenges due to the dispersed nature of milk production, scattered settlements, and inadequate supply infrastructure. Therefore, milk needs to be collected, transported, and marketed from villages to cities to ensure profitable returns for producers. Milk is usually collected from producers at designated collection points in rural areas, which serve a large number of small suppliers. This approach minimizes the need for individual chilling and storage facilities. Collection points should follow the same hygiene standards as dairy processing facilities. Milk should arrive at a chilling station within four hours of milking, especially in warmer climates. There, it must be quickly cooled to below 4°C to preserve its quality. Bulk milk coolers of required capacity are installed for the chilling and storage of milk at low temperature till it is transported to the processing plant.

Introduction

Biological fluids refer to any liquid substances found within living organisms that play essential roles in physiological functions. These fluids can include blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, digestive juices, rumen fluid, peritoneal fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, synovial fluid, amniotic fluid, milk etc.

Collection of biological fluids refers to the process of gathering various types of bodily f luids from animals for scientific study or medical purposes. This collection often involves techniques like blood draws, urine collection, cerebrospinal fluid sampling, saliva collection, etc., depending on the specific fluid and the research or diagnostic needs. These f luids are valuable for understanding the health, metabolism, genetics, and other aspects of animal biology. Collecting and analyzing these biological fluids is crucial for understanding health and disease processes, diagnosing illnesses, monitoring treatment effectiveness, and advancing medical and scientific research.