eChapters

13.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The square of a standard normal variate is known as Chi-square variate with one d.f.

Q.2 If X ~ N(μ, σ²) and Z = (x - μ)/σ then Z² is known as Chi-square variate with 1.d.f.

Q.3 If Xi ~ N(μi, σi), i = 1,2,...., n are n independent normal variates then

Nanomaterials are a rapidly growing technological sector with diverse applications. These nanomaterials are categorized into distinct groups according to their shape, size, and materials used in their fabrication. The synthesis of nanomaterials follows different strategies that are tailored to their specific applications. This chapter describes the different approaches used for the synthesis of nanomaterials, including top-down, bottom-up, and hybrid approaches. Furthermore, this chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each fabrication method and explores the diverse applications of nanomaterials across multiple fields.

For millennia, humans have forged an intimate relationship with the natural world, recognizing and harnessing the therapeutic potential of plants for healing. This unit, “Introduction to Herbal Medicines,” embarks on a comprehensive exploration of plant-based therapies, delving into their historical evolution, fundamental terminology, integration within traditional healing systems, and the practical aspects of their cultivation, processing, and utilization. We aim to provide a solid bedrock of knowledge, enabling a deeper understanding of the science and practice of herbal medicine, and appreciating its enduring significance in the modern world."
1. History and Scope of Herbal Medicines
1.1 Ancient Beginnings: The Dawn of Plant-Based Healing
• Paleolithic Roots: Our most ancient ancestors, from the Paleolithic period, are believed to have harbored a refined comprehension of the pharmacological attributes of vegetation. Excavations have unearthed indications of specific plant utilization for addressing physical trauma and maladies, underscoring an early grasp of their remedial efficacy. This knowledge was likely passed down through oral traditions, forming the foundation of future herbal practices.
• Civilizational Emergence: With the rise of civilizations, medicinal plant use became more structured and recorded. In ancient Sumeria, clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform script, dating back to 3000 BC, record the use of various plants for medicinal purposes, showcasing organized knowledge of herbal remedies. The Egyptian Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC), a remarkable medical text, provides detailed prescriptions for treating a wide array of ailments using plants like aloe vera, garlic, and opium, evidencing a sophisticated understanding of pharmacotherapy. In India, the ancient system of Ayurveda, with its foundational texts, the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, meticulously documents the use of numerous medicinal plants, emphasizing a holistic approach to health. Similarly, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), with the Shennong Bencao Jing (c. 1st century AD), provides a comprehensive pharmacopeia, demonstrating the profound integration of herbal remedies into Chinese medical practice.

Ruminant Ruminant's gastrointestinal tract is unique and different from equines, canines and felines because of complex stomach (polygastric) compartmentalized as rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum leading to a different digestive process as well as their diseases. In gastrointestinal dysfunction of ruminant, a complete examination, starting from history, systemic states, visual inspection of abdomen, examination of buccal cavity and esophagus, examination of left and right abdomen, per rectal examination, radiographic examination, paracentesis abdominis to laparoscopy is recommended. History •     A detail history, with respect to status of pregnancy, lactation, dietary nature (grazing, stall fed), diet

The interventions for women empowerment was perhaps started intensively since fourth plan period. Subsequently many more initiatives are taken for the total all round development of women in this country.

A. 4^TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1969-1974)

Farmers Training and Education Programme

It was for the first time in the 4^th Five Year Plan that an effort was made by Ministry of Agriculture to address the training and extension needs of women farmers with new and improved technology through “Farmers Training and Education Programme”, in which a network of 150 Farmers Training Centers were established to close the visible gap between the recommended package of practices and the farm women’s knowledge and skills about them. In this programme, a linkage of the supply of production inputs with improved technical training, supported by Farm Radio Broadcast and Functional Literacy was provided. The unique feature of this programme was that for the first time, a cognizance of women’s participation in agriculture was taken. The experience of the programme had shown that the states which gave due importance to this programme, especially in terms of curriculum planning and syllabus formulation (based on true status and needs of women farmers), achieved very good results. It was, this programme, which focused many issues that had to be categorically considered while planning and implementing agriculture support programmes for women farmers.

Introduction

Climate change is a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures. Eleven years from 1995-2006 rank among the twelve warmest years in the instrumental record of global surface temperature (since 1850). The 100-year linear trend (1906-2005) of 0.74 [0.56 to 0.92] °C is larger than the corresponding trend of 0.6 [0.4 to 0.8] °C (1901-2000) and over the 21st century average temperature of earth surface is likely to go up by an additional of 1.8-4°C (IPCC, 2007). This temperature increase can be attributed to the altered energy balance of the climate system resulting from changes in atmospheric concentrations of the green house gases (GHGs). Among the principal components of radiative forcing of climate change, CO₂ has the highest positive forcing leading to warming of climate. CO₂ has the least global warming potential among the major green house gases but due to its much higher concentration in the atmosphere; it is the major contributor towards global warming and climate change. Agriculture sector in India contributes 28% of the total GHG emissions (NATCOM, 2004). The global average from agriculture is only 13.5% (IPCC, 2007). In future, the percentage emissions from agriculture in India are likely to be smaller due to relatively much higher growth in emissions in energy-use transport and industrial sectors. The emissions from agriculture are primarily due to methane emissions from rice fields, enteric fermentation in ruminant animals and nitrous oxides from application of manures and fertilizers to agricultural soils (NATCOM, 2004).

Introduction

In the environment of dwindling water resources and contention of the other sectors, the share of water allocated to irrigation is likely to be decreased by 10 to 15 per cent in the next two decades. One of the ways of improving water scarcity is by enhancing its use efficiency or productivity. Water use efficiency (WUE) is a broad concept that can be defined in many ways. For farmers or farm irrigators, WUE is the yield of harvested crop produce achieved from the available water to the crop from irrigation, rainfall and soil water storage. Improving WUE in pomegranate will be required an increasing in pomegranate water productivity (i.e. an increasing marketable yield per unit of water used by plants and reduction in water losses from the root zone (Chopde and Gorantiwar, 1998; Chopde et al., 2001; Intrigoli et al., 2011). For comprehensive improvement of WUE, it is necessary to raise the following ratios to their maximum: stored soil water content/water received through rainfall and irrigation, transpiration/water consumption, biomass yield/transpiration, water consumption/soil water storage and economic benefit/biomass yield (Frederick, 1993).

Ice cream is a complex multiphase food system in which fat, proteins, sugars, water, air, ice crystals, and stabilizers interact to determine its structure and eating quality. This chapter introduces the scientific principles governing ice cream composition, microstructure, freezing behaviour, and processing. It explains freezing-point depression, ice-crystal formation, colloidal behaviour, foam development, and structural changes during processing. Particular attention is given to the relationship between microscopic structure and sensory properties such as smoothness, creaminess, body, and meltdown. By connecting food chemistry with processing technology, the chapter establishes the scientific foundation required to understand formulation, manufacturing performance, quality control, and product stability.

International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs) are standards adopted by the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM), which is the governing body of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). The first International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) was adopted in 1993.

As of March 2021, there are 44 adopted ISPMs (ISPM 30 being revoked), 29 Diagnostic Protocols and 39 Phytosanitary Treatments. These international standards protect sustainable agriculture and enhance global food security, protect the environment, forests and biodiversity and facilitate economic and trade development. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures are prepared by the Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention as part of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s global programme of policy and technical assistance in plant quarantine. 

This section explores how nanoparticles have a significant influence on sensing and detection, explaining how they have revolutionized analytical capabilities. Our trip through many kinds of nanomaterials, such as metal nanoparticles, semiconductor nanomaterials, and carbon-based structures, aims to explore their distinct features and how they might be used for novel sensing methods. The intricacies behind sophisticated sensor technologies are clarified through an examination of plasmonic sensing, quantum dot applications, and conductive nanomaterial responses. In order to improve selectivity, the chapter emphasises surface modifications and biomimetic coatings as key components of strategic functionalization techniques.

Air

Estimation of Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSPM) and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM)

Requirements
Instrument

High Volume Sampler (HVS) APM 415-411 (Envirotech Instrument India), Respirable Dust Sampler (RDS) APM 451 (Envirotech Instrument India) with midget impinger containing absorbing solution were used.

Nanomaterials, a cornerstone of nanotechnology, encompass a broad array of particles showcasing remarkable properties and diverse applications. This chapter outlines the classifications and applications of various nanomaterials, including organic, semiconductor, metal, metal oxide, and carbon-based nanoparticles. Each type offers unique characteristics, such as biodegradability, optical and electrical properties, making them valuable in fields like drug delivery, electronics, and catalysis. Furthermore, this study focuses on the interactions of nanoparticles with living organisms, emphasizing their impact on immune systems across plants, invertebrates, and humans. 

The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods, and techniques which were utilized to design the study, collection of information, analysis of the data and interpretation of the findings for revelation of truths and formulation of theories. This chapter deals with the method and a procedure used in the study and consists of eight main parts-
• Locale of research
• Pilot study
• Sampling Design and Framework
• Empirical measurement of the variables
• Item analysis and experts rating for devising scoring technique on dependent variables
• Preparation of interview Schedule
• Pre testing of Interview Schedule
• Techniques of Data collection
• Statistical Tools used for Analysis of Data
5.1. Locale of Research
The present research has been carried out at Kasthodanga, Mollabalia, Madhpur, Baksha, and Mitrapur villages of Kasthodanga gram panchayat in Haringhata block; Rautari, Ghetu Gachhi, Maniktala para, Tentul Baria, Maheswarpur from gram panchayat in Chakdaha block of Nadia district; Boinchigram, Goara, Chau bera, Uttarkhanda, Champahati villages of Bantika- Boinchi gram panchayat in Pandua Block; Dhopapara, Beleswar, Ichhapura, Tiornai, Baksagari from Dhopapara gram panchayat in Balagarh block of Hooghly district from the Alluvial zone of West Bengal. From the Terai zone of West Bengal, Elejanerkuthi, Kalabarighat, Hourgari, Ghughumari, Gokuler Kuthi, Hirar kuthi from Coochbehar- 1 block; Pundibari, Kalarayerkuthi, Sukhdhanerkuthi, Khagribari, Singimari Paschimpar, Basdaha Natibari, villages of Coochbehar- 2 block; Mirer Kuthi, Kismat Dasagram, Bara Shakdal, Kochabari, Bamanhat-ii, Durganagar, villages of Dinhata 2 block

1. Introduction 
The intersection of nanotechnology and microalgal biodiesel production presents a compelling avenue for addressing the pressing challenges of sustainability, energy security, and environmental conservation (Cai et al., 2021a). Microalgae, microscopic photosynthetic organisms, have emerged as a promising source for biodiesel due to their high lipid content, rapid growth rates, and potential for cultivation in diverse environments as compare to other sources as given in Fig. 1. However, the commercialization of microalgal biodiesel has been hampered by various limitations, including low lipid productivity, inefficient harvesting techniques, and high production costs. Nanotechnology, with its ability to manipulate materials at the nanoscale, offers innovative solutions to enhance various stages of microalgal biodiesel production. From cultivation to processing, nanomaterials and nanodevices hold the potential to optimize efficiency, increase yields, and reduce environmental impacts. By improving light penetration, nutrient delivery, and CO2 utilization, nanotechnology-enabled systems enhance microalgal growth and lipid accumulation (Li et al., 2019; Cai et al., 2021b). Moreover, nanoscale structures facilitate the development of efficient harvesting methods, minimizing energy consumption and water usage. In biodiesel processing, nanocatalysts exhibit superior catalytic activity, enabling faster reaction times and higher yields in transesterification processes. Nanostructured membranes enhance the purification and separation of biodiesel, ensuring high-quality end products with minimal impurities. Despite these advancements, challenges such as scalability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability of nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel production persist (Zhao et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). This chapter aims to provide an overview of the current status and future prospects of integrating nanotechnology into microalgal biodiesel production. Through a 2 | Nanotools for Microalgal Biodiesel Production comprehensive analysis of recent advancements, challenges, and opportunities, we seek to elucidate the potential of nanotechnology to drive the commercialization and widespread adoption of sustainable microalgal biodiesel. By fostering interdisciplinary collaborations and leveraging emerging technologies, we can pave the way towards a more sustainable and energy-efficient future.

Abstract

The natural color of foods is due primarily to carotenoids, anthocyanins, betanin and chlorophylls, either as inherent food constituents or as food or feed additives. These compounds have drawn considerable attention in recent years, not because of their coloring properties, but due to their potential health-promoting effects. Their occurrence and levels in foods, along with the factors that influence the composition, have been widely investigated. Processing effects have been actively studied. In spite of the intense search for plant and microbial sources and efforts to increase yield, few natural food color additives have reached the market. Developing new colors for the food industry is challenging, as colorants need to be compatible with a food flavors, safety, and nutritional value, and which ultimately have a minimal impact on the price of the product. In addition, food colorants should preferably be natural rather than synthetic compounds. Micro-organisms already produce industrially useful natural colorants such as carotenoids and anthocyanins. Microbial food colorants can be produced at scale at relatively low costs. This chapter highlights the significance of color in the food industry, why there is a need to shift to natural food colors compared to synthetic ones and how using microbial pigments as food colorants, instead of colors from other natural sources, is a preferable option.

Using the FAO criteria, Bargur and Siri cattle breeds and Attapadi goat breeds were categorized under vulnerable status of risk; Krishna Valley, Mewati, Pullikulam and Punganur cattle breeds, Chilika and Toda buffalo breeds and Karnah and Poonchi sheep breeds under endangered status of under risk and Vechur cattle under critical status of risk. All these breeds need immediate steps for rescue by using suitable conservation methodology. Breed-wise census should be continued in future so that trends in breed populations may also be estimated for fine tuning of risk assessment of breeds.

Rate of inbreeding in Indian livestock breeds: The rate of inbreeding estimated for different breeds of cattle was well below 0.5% (needed for a breed ‘not at risk’) except for Mewati (1.193%), Pullikulam (0.72%) and Vechur (17.893%). The rate of inbreeding in buffalo breeds was also well below 0.5% except in Chilika buffalo, where it was 0.731%. The rate of inbreeding of these breeds may be reduced by increasing the number of breeding males and in Vechur also the breeding females. The rate of inbreeding in all the breeds of sheep (Indian or exotic), goat and pig were estimated to be less than 0.5%. In these species, a good balance of breeding males and females is always expected.

Introduction
 
Animals used for experimental research purpose, which show results resembling to human beings are known as lab animals. They are mostly used because of their small size, lesser feed and space requirement. Furthermore, they are not natural host for most of the animal / human pathogens. The laboratory animal research is conducted at universities, medical colleges, pharmaceutical companies, farms, defense establishments and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to industry. It includes basic research in the area of genetics, developmental biology, behavioural science etc., as well as applied research in the area of biomedical science, xenotransplantation and drugs including cosmetics testing. Laboratory animals are also used for education, breeding and defense research. The common laboratory animals are mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs and rabbits. However, cats, dogs, monkeys, goats, sheep, cattle, pig, horses, fishes etc. can also be utilized as laboratory animals for experimental purpose in biomedical sciences.

Introduction

Pulses are pivotal and integral component of Indian agriculture and are excellent crops for natural resources management, environment security, crop diversification consequently for viable agriculture. India contributes 25 percent of the global production but has to import pulses to the home to the tune of 3.5mt every year to meet domestic requirement. In spite of largest area for chickpea, pigeon pea, lentil, dry beans & total pulses in the world, India’s’position in average productivity has never been decent i.e.25^th rank in chickpea, 19^th in Pea & 98^th in total pulses. This indicates that except chick pea & pigeon pea, the average productivity of the country is significantly lower than average yield of the world. To make India self sufficient in pulse production, the productivity level has to increase more than1200 kg/ha. by 2020. This gigantic task needs rigorous development & promotional efforts to transfer agro-technology packages in crop improvement and crop management, which are capable of doubling the present level of productivity Nanda et al. (1999) and Nanda

Fish nutrition is a key component of aquaculture, as it directly affects the growth, health, reproduction, and overall efficiency of farmed species. Unlike land animals, fish primarily obtain their energy from proteins and fats, making their dietary needs distinct and specific to each species. With the expansion of aquaculture and rising demand for high-quality fish protein, ensuring nutritionally balanced diets for fish has become increasingly important. Fish require both macronutrients—proteins, fats, and carbohydrates—and micronutrients, including essential vitamins and minerals. Proteins are especially important for tissue building and enzymatic functions, while fats provide energy and vital fatty acids needed for cell membranes and hormone synthesis. Although carnivorous fish digest carbohydrates less efficiently, they are still used as a low-cost energy source. Vitamins such as A, D, E, and C, and minerals like calcium, phosphorus, zinc,

Cytokines are the short lived chemical messenger molecules, released by a group of cells which can modulate the functions of the same cell(by which they are produced) or other cells.