eChapters

Introduction
 
Maintaining and restoring the quality of air, water and soil is one of the great challenges of our time. Most countries face serious environmental problems, such as the availability of drinking water, the treatment of waste and wastewater, air pollution and the contamination of soil and groundwater. There are two main approaches to these problems: the first is to control pollution at source to minimize or eliminate waste production or harmful emissions; the second is to remedy the pollutants that accumulate in the environment. Considering the enormous scale of soil and groundwater contamination, the complexity of the task seems intractable. In many cases, conventional remediation and treatment technologies have shown only limited effectiveness in reducing the levels of pollutants, especially in soil and water (Rickerby and Morrison, 2007).

Introduction
 
Nanotoxicity is a serious concern to be addressed sooner than later as nano-based processes and products in various fields are being extensively exploited. Nanotoxicology is the science of engineered nanodevices and nanostructures that deals with their effects in living organisms (Oberdorster et al., 2005). The unique property of nanoparticles is in its very large surface area to mass ratio, which is considered to be a boon to create novel products. But this distinctive property also challenges the way we identify, understand and address potential risks caused by nanoparticles (Rajkishore et al., 2011). It is sufficient to alert us to the fact that some engineered nanoparticles do indeed behave differently to their more conventional counterparts and may present new and unusual risks. Kahru and Dubourguier (2010) assessed the existing literature on nanotoxicity to main food chain levels (bacteria, algae, crustaceans, ciliates, fish, yeasts and nematodes) and classified the NPs of Ag and ZnO as “extremely toxic”, C60 fullerenes and CuO NP as “very toxic”, SWCNTs and MWCNTs as “toxic” and TiO₂ NP as “harmful”. 

Introduction

The characterization of the potential health impact of engineered materials produced through nanotechnology is an emerging issue of considerable discussion and debate. The current focus on nanotoxicity fails to assess the risk in different local environments and populations. People in developing countries may be more prone to adverse effects of nanoparticles because of underlying health conditions and malnutrition. Moreover, genetic susceptibility to toxic effects varies in diverse ethnic groups and geographical areas. The scientific community needs to identify these information gaps before developing regulations and standard methodologies for nanotoxicity assessment.

Introduction

Engineered nanoparticles are a group of products that are defined by their size, ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Due to the smaller size, the physio-chemical properties of nano particles become very different from those of the same material in a larger form. Total production of nano-materials is expected to increase considerably in the near future. Nanotoxicology is yet another emerging field of science dealing with the effects of nano-devices and engineered nano-particles on living organisms. It has been observed that the materials in nano-dimensions react totally different in comparison to their existence in micro or macro sizes.

Summary

Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to support plant growth. The productive capacity of the soil depends on complex interactions between biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil. In essence, soil fertility does not refer only to plant nutrients but also soil organic matter, structure and maintenance of thriving soil organisms. Good farm practices aim at managing the various factors that make up each of these three properties to optimize yields of crops in an environmentally friendly manner. The debate on soil fertility is often erroneously limited to issues relating to plant nutrients.

Summary

The soil is the basis of agriculture as the productivity of the farm enterprise is strongly linked to the fertility status of the soil. The soil acts as a reservoir for the essential nutrients that crops need for growth. When these nutrients are in sufficient quantities and balance, agricultural productivity is greatly enhanced. On the other hand if the nutrients are in short supply and imbalanced, crop growth is hampered. When crops grow and produce harvest, they remove nutrients from the soil. These nutrients are exported when the grains or edible parts are eaten and the stover removed. Consequently with time, a soil that is considered fertility will also lose its fertility if no nutrients are added periodically. It is important to assess the fertility status of the soil before planting and all necessary ameliorations effected in time to ensure a good harvest. Various methods exist for evaluating soil fertility. The best indicator of a fertile soil is good growth of crops growing on it.

Summary
 
This chapter explores different approaches to manage water in rain-fed and irrigated agricultural systems. The first methods support the retention of water and reduce soil erosion. These methods include mulching – the application of a surface coating over the soil – which is usually organic mater. This reduces the damage to soil caused by rain and wind and reduces water loss to evaporation and helps with infiltration. The other methods explored are bunding and terracing.  These approaches are about stopping the flow of water across land to increase the amount of water infiltration into the soil and to reduce or prevent soil run off.  These approaches are labour intensive. A less labour -intensive approach is contour ploughing. This approach is about encouraging farmers and tractor drivers to plough across sloping fields not up and down them. The second group of technologies refers to the introduction of water through irrigation methods.

Summary

This chapter looks at the various approaches available to the farmer for the management of soil fertility. In general there are four approaches, namely, physical, biological and chemical approaches as well as the cropping systems or agronomic approach.This chapter discusses three approaches, physical, biological and cropping system or agronomic approaches. Chemical approach has been treated in chapter 7 of this book. Inoculation is an important technique in legume production. This chapter also looks at inoculation and how it is done.

Summary
 
ISFM has been defined in a number of ways – but here an emphasis is placed on finding a way to explain ISFM that makes sense to the intended audience. When combined with general good agronomic practices the combination of improved planting material, chemical fertilizer along with the addition of organic mater, increases productivity.  There are, however, constraints at the smallholder level – in terms of access to farm inputs e.g. seed, credit &labour.This section looks at short and long-term approaches to the application of basic nutrients. The issues of recycling nutrients and the impact of erosion on the nutrients in the soil. There is a review of the pros and cons of ISFM – it does increase yield (4 -6 times more production).  There is a brief outline of the role of cover crops, mulching and conservation tillage as forms of agriculture that can help reduce soil erosion.The section locates the idea of ISFM along side integrated pest management and explores the impact of biological control agents in Ghana and the role of micro-organisms.

Summary

The use of organic resources in modern agriculture implies the production of crops through organic farming without doing any damage to the environment. Synthetic chemicals are never used in organic farming. This avoids having much pressure on nature’s non-renewable resources used in farming activities. In this unit, we shall discuss many organic resources, their quality and management within ISFM.

Sources of plant nutrients include residual soil nutrients, crop residues, green manures, animal manures and biosolids, biologically-fixed nitrogen and manufactured fertilizers. Crops use plant nutrient from all sources but the nutrient elements must be transformed into the ionic forms before being taken by plants. The amount of nutrients provided by different sources varies between and within agro-ecosystems. Integrated plant nutrient management identifies and uses all available sources of plant nutrients

Summary

Fertilizers are materials when applied replenish lost soil nutrients on farmer’s field. Without the use of fertilizers farmers would find it extremely difficult to increase their production to meet the ever-growing mouths. The purpose of this session is to discuss what a fertilizer is, and the different terminologies used in fertilizer technology.

Summary

ISFM is important, cost-effective and has the potential of improving farming efficiency and crop productivity. This is only possible when farmers understand the concept and follow recommended practices in the ISFM approach.
 
The challenge is how to effectively disseminate ISFM practices to farmers for sustainable crop production.

Summary

Food production starts with a good soil. No matter the kind of seed and good agronomic practices that are put in place without a good soil yields will be low and hence income. ISFM is a technology that helps to solve the problem of soil infertility and production.
 
Farmers only accept and adopt a technology if they see it to be superior to what they have been doing and it makes business sense. Farmers will not worry about the bigger picture of food security or increased production – they need to make a profit to support their household.

Summary

Reaching large-scale implementation should be the overriding objective of all projects that have successfully ISFM practices to share provide markets support them. All too often ISFM results are only reported in peer-reviewed journals that are not accessible outside the research community.
 
Funding agencies often fail to make the production of extension materials an integral and mandatory requirement of research projects.
Unfortunately, in the past, adoption of economically proven technology has often been poor. Some of the reasons include:

Abstract

Cyanobacteria have gained a lot of attention in recent years because of their novel applications in biotechnology, besides their well recognized role as inoculants for rice crop. They represent favourite model organisms for a deeper understanding of several plant and microbial metabolic processes and efficient systems for the production of recombinant compounds of pharmaceutical and commercial value. They have been identified as a rich source of biologically active compounds with antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer activities, which illustrate their potential as biocontrol agents. The genus Anabaena assumes significance not only as a diazotroph, but also as a rich source of pharmacologically active and structurally interesting secondary metabolites with diverse applications in agriculture and industry. The present compilation aims to present an overview of the literature available globally, and studies undertaken in India illustrating the diversity and potential of Anabaena strains, besides their significance in biology and evolution.

Abstract

Twelve different cyanobacteria strains from different locations in Syria were collected and analyzed. They were identified as strains from Anabaena, Nostoc, Phormidium and Chroococcus. All strains produce mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) as UV-screens upon UV-radiation. Composition of the MAAs and amount of UV-induced MAA production differ between the strains. In order to evaluate the long-term stability of completely encapsulated cyanobacteria aliquots were transferred into hermetically closed vessels. The survival was non-invasively determined by means of pulse-amplitude modulated fluorescence and by delayed fluorescence detection. It was found that 4 strains (one Chroococcus, two Anabaena and one Nostoc species) show photosynthetic performance after 4 years of encapsulation. In addition, many cyanobacteria are desiccation tolerant and are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. They may play an important role in biological life support systems e.g. in space research.

Abstract

Present implementation of mass spectrometers has allowed developing new approaches in algal research. Soft ionization techniques like atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI), electrospray ionization (ESI), and matrix assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) extend the analytical possibilities of mass spectrometry (MS) beyond classical fatty acid analysis by gas chromatography (GC) with electron impact ionization (EI). New MS-based analytical methods have been developed over the last two decades for algal molecule research including membrane lipids, carotenoids, mycosporine-like amino acids and peptides.
 
MS-based Metabololomics approaches have also been used to gain insights into algal biochemistry and physiology. This review aims at highlighting the achievements in algal research gained by using these recent research tools and their future prospects.

Abstract

Being an obligate photoautotroph, cyanobacteria must cope with a wide range of fluctuating environmental factors, including high light and ultraviolet radiation (UVR) that may lead to oxidative stress by upsetting the cellular redox status. Photo-induced oxidative stress by means of oxidizing agent such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) may damage several biological processes. In response to several adverse effects of solar UVR, cyanobacteria have developed different strategies such as heat dissipation mechanisms, synthesis of UV- absorbing/screening compounds and antioxidant systems to overcome the detrimental effects of intracellular oxidant molecules. This review deals with UV-induced oxidative stress and their counteracting mechanisms operating in cyanobacteria.

Abstract

The substantial loss in the shielding ozone layer has resulted in an increase in the solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) on the Earth’s surface, which is detrimental for all living organisms ranging from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, including humans. This has augmented the scientific concern and interest in searching for the photoprotective compounds from diverse organisms. Cyanobacteria, the primitive O2-evolving photosynthetic prokaryotes are solely dependent upon the solar radiation for their energy requirement and thereby have to always face the UV-B stress. UVR affects cyanobacteria either directly or indirectly by inducing oxidative stress. In response, they have evolved the capacity to synthesize, accumulate and metabolize a variety of UV-absorbing compounds such as, mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs), scytonemin, carotenoids, biopterin glucoside, as a strategy to reduce the direct and indirect damaging effects of UVR.

Abstract

Synonymous and non-synonymous substitution result in isomerization and deformity in protein structure. Both play more or less important role in evolution. Interestingly, cyanobacterial phycobiliproteins (PBPs) are composed of proteins which are coded by codons by mRNA translation. These proteins are categorized into three groups e.g., C-PC, C-PE and C-APC having a and b subunits. The skeleton and arrangement of amino acids in subunits can provide structural and functional integrity of PBPs as well as GC₃ associated substitution of synonymous and non-synonymous codons.

Abstract

Cyanobacteria, the Gram-negative photosynthetic prokaryotes are able to produce a wide range of secondary metabolites. Some of these metabolites are of general concern due to their toxicity and known as cyanobacterial toxins. These cyanotoxins are reported widely due to human and animal health hazard. On the basis of their toxicological target, these cyanotoxins can be classified into five different groups: hepatotoxins, neurotoxins, cytotoxins, dermatotoxins and irritant toxins (lipopolysaccharides). Hepatotoxins constitute a family of cyclic peptide variants and are classified as microcystins and nodularins. These hepatotoxic peptides possess a high degree of cellular specificity to the hepatocytes with similar mode of action and act as potent inhibitors of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A (PP1 and PP2A).

Abstract

The extensive use of antibiotics has raised serious health concern throughout the world due to development of resistance in microbes towards many classes of antibiotics. The emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR) in microbes and lack of novel classes of antimicrobial agents have raised an immediate need to identify new agents with novel mode of action. In addition to novel agents, inhibitors of efflux pumps are being now viewed as one of the most viable management strategy for treating MDR infections. In this concern, plants have always been a source of inspiration for novel drugs.

Abstract

Despite several controversies surrounding the genetically modified (GM) crops or their produce, the production of such crops is constantly increasing, especially in developing countries. To regulate the GM produce in the market, several countries have set very strict regulatory procedures for the approval to grow, import or utilize these GM crops as food or food ingredients. Hence, for regulatory compliance on GM labeling and identification of genetic traits, the development of reliable, sensitive and precise detection assays have become essential. The detection of GM produce is carried out by detecting either the inserted foreign DNA or the novel transgenic protein specifically expressed in GM crops. This article broadly focuses on some DNA and protein-based detection methods employed for GM produce and significant current advances in such detection technologies.

Abstract

Cyanobacteria were first oxygen evolving photosynthetic organisms on Earth, which not only survived under harsh conditions of primitive Earth but are also dominant and efficient photosynthesizers and N₂ fixers of present time which significantly contribute to fertility of paddy fields as natural biofertilizers. Cyanobacteria require solar radiation to carry out photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation. The stratospheric ozone depletion which has resulted in an increase in ultraviolet-B (UV-B; 280 - 315 nm) radiation on the Earth’s surface has been reported to inhibit a number of photochemical and photobiological processes in cyanobacteria. However, they have evolved mechanisms such as synthesis of photoprotective compound scytonemin and their derivatives to counteract the damaging effects of UV-B. In addition to Photoprotection, scytonemin has biotechnological potentials and several applications in biology and allied sciences.

Abstract

This study was conducted to examine the response of photosynthetic pigments to heavy metal stress in a short-term toxicity test using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). HPLC pigment analysis of Euglena has resulted in 5 separated pigments: chlorophylls a, b and three carotenoids, which are 9-cis-neoxanthin, diadinoxanthin and b-carotene.

Abstract

In order to fill the gap between the protein sequences and their 3D structures available in the public databases, the computational prediction of protein structure has become the need of the hour. Therefore, the present chapter aims to highlight various methods and strategies for computational protein structure prediction by established ab initio, threading and homology modeling methods. Ab initio, threading and homology modeling methods are mainly based on the low sequence similarity, similarity between 25-30% and similarity more than 30% with the template structure respectively. Hybrid methods are preferred which club together a number of features such as structural alignments, solvent accessibility and secondary structure informations.

Abstract

A transect was performed along the Chubut River (Patagonia) from the Atlantic towards the Andes measuring major water parameters of this drainage area. Samples were taken at different locations of the Chubut River, and also brooks several Andes lakes in the Chubut and Río Negro Provinces as well as from several Andes rivers and mountain creeks. For comparison, the Laguna Cacique Chiquichano in Trelew (Chubut) was investigated. Several physico-chemical parameters were determined (pH, oxygen, nitrogen compounds, conductivity, redox potential, water hardness and spectral transmission), as well as photosynthesis by means of PAM fluorimetry. Water toxicity was assessed with a bioassay based on toxicity-induced changes of the movement behavior of a flagellate.

Abstract

Cyanobacteria  evolved during  the  Precambrian  era and are believed to be the first  one  to  introduce oxygen  into  the  initially  reducing  atmosphere  by  oxygenic  photosynthesis. Thus being the main primary producers of organic matter at that time and thereby contributed to a major global transformation leading to the development of aerobic metabolism and the subsequent rise of higher plants and animal forms. Reactive  oxygen  species  (ROS)  in  cyanobacteria  are  commonly  generated during  normal  growth  and  development.  However  abiotic  and  biotic stresses  enhance  the  level  of   ROS  which  in  turn  pose  the  danger  of oxidative  stress.  Ability  to  perceive  ROS  and  to  rapidly  initiate  antioxidant defenses  is  crucial  for  their  survival.  Therefore cyanobacteria evolved four lines of defense mechanisms to combat the damages caused by oxidative stress. Inretrospect  to  their  ecological  adaptivity, ubiquitous  presence  and  efficient  source  of   compounds  of biotechnological  significance, this chapter aims to elucidate various mechanisms adopted by cyanobacteria to combat oxidative stress.

Mycorrhiza research is relatively recent. Although, it was in 1885 that A.B. Frank made reference for the first time to the term “Mycorrhiza”, it took him nine more years to establish the symbiotic relationship between the fungus and its host plant. It took a much longer time to convince the rest of the scientific community of the validity of Frank’s theory. Researches carried out between 1917 to 1950 confirmed that “Mycorrhizal colonization is a beneficial symbiosis between tree and fungus”. It is an unique partnership in nature, where the higher plants share their photosynthates with their fungal partners and provide them shelter, the fungal partners in return provide protection to the root system and assist it in performing its functions especially anchorage and absorption of nutrients / water from soil more efficiently.

The ectomycorrhizal fungi have been in use as a biological tool in improving the performance of forest trees since long. Better performance of forest trees is ensured by making them mycorrhizal, employing efficient strains of ectomycorrhizal fungi.

VAM fungi are of worldwide distribution. They are present in the soil in form of chlamydospores, zygospores and azygospores and have been recovered from the soils of a variety of habitats e.g. agricultural fields, nutrient deficient soils, sand dunes and deserts, industrial wastes, sodic soils, polluted sites, sewage, eroded sites and others like forests, open woodlands, scrub, savana, heaths, grasslands, anthracite and bituminous coal wastes. There are several reports of VAM fungi from diverse habitats from India.

VA-mycorrhizal associations occur widely throughout the plant kingdom. They have  been reported to be present in Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms in nearly all the geographical regions of the world. Most of the agricultural and horticultural crops belonging to diverse families have been shown to form VA-mycorrhizae. Many species of plants of economically important families have been reported to be mycorrhizal. Likewise, many of the plantation crops like coffee, tea, citrus, timber trees, many of the fruit trees and medicinal plants have been shown to form VA-mycorrhiza.

In recent years the importance of VAM fungi for plant growth in most soils has been accepted and acknowledged by soil chemists, agronomists, horticulturists and farmers. Ever since it was shown that VAM could increase nutrient uptake and water uptake from soil in plants, researchers have been trying to extend and manipulate this effect of mycorrhiza in improving the growth and productivity in various groups of plants. Mycorrhizasts of the country have also explored the possibility of utilizing this tool for improving the performance of various crops including cereals, millets, pulses, vegetables, oilseeds and fruit crops. In addition, they have tried to explore the possibility of utilizing this biotool also for improving the growth of various types of trees including forest trees. Following account is related to the work done by the mycorrhizasts of the country on the effect of VA mycorrhiza on the growth and productivity of various groups of plants including cultivated crops.

Favourable effect of VAM association in plants has been attributed to an increased nutrient uptake by mycorrhizal roots. The transfer of ion from the soil to the roots by mass flow or by diffusion depends on the mobility of that particular ion in the soil. Ions such as NO₃^- ,SO ₄^— and Ca⁺⁺ may move rapidly through the soil to the roots by mass flow, and uptake would be limited by the absorbing capacity of the roots. On the other hand, ions such as H₂PO₄^-, NH₄⁺, Zn⁺⁺ and Cu⁺⁺ are poorly mobile and move to the roots by diffusion, the rate limiting steps is likely to be the movement to the root surface. Under such conditions, it is expected that uptake would be increased if ions could be moved rapidly through extramatrical hyphae of the VAM fungi rather than diffusing slowly through the soil. It is now well established that VA mycorrhizae enhance the uptake of phosphate by the roots but it is likely that they can also assist in the uptake of other ions. The following account provides an information on the findings of Indian mycorrhizasts on the effects of VA mycorrhizal association on nutrient uptake in the plants and its physiological implications.

Of the various microorganisms present in and around roots, VAM fungi occupy unique ecological position as they are partly inside and partly outside the host. Their internal phase encounters competition and antagonism from other beneficial symbiotic microbes while their external phase faces competition and antagonism from beneficial non-symbiotic microbes present around the roots. Since they have an ensured source of nutrients from the host, they have comparatively better conditions for their growth and may exert greater effect on plants with other symbiotic and non-symbiotic microbes in and around their roots. It has been pointed out that investigations are needed on the interactions between VAM fungi and these beneficial microbes, and their effect on growth and productivity in plants. A bulk of information has been collected related to this aspect; however, authentic generalization has not been possible as yet. Following description gives an account of the work done by Indian mycorrhizasts on the interactions between VAM fungi and other beneficial symbiotic/non-symbiotic microbes in and around the roots.

Factors which influence the colonization and life cycle of VAM fungi have important bearing on the extent to which they may benefit their host. As we move closer to using mycorrhizal fungi to increase growth and productivity of different plant communities, a thorough understanding of the factors which influence their survival, germination, root colonization an d sporulation will be critical. Seasons, physico-chemical characters of the soil, agronomic practices, plant protection chemicals, pollutants and genotypic characters of the host may affect VAM fungi and their potentiality to colonize and provide benefit to the host. In view of this, the effect of such factors on the VA mycorrhizal symbiosis and its benefit to diverse plant communities has been extensively investigated worldover.

Extensive studies have been carried out to explore the possibility of using mycorrhizal model system in inducing suppressions of potential soil-borne pathogens. Its relevance becomes all the more important since most of the soil-borne diseases, by and large, are not easily controlled by conventional methods.

Diseases due to Fungal Pathogens

Most of the studies conducted on the interaction of VAM fungi and fungal pathogens suggest that mycorrhizae decrease the severity of disease, while a few studies suggest that there is either no effect or there is an increase in the severity of disease. It has been pointed out that in view of the fact that VAM fungi deter the severity of disease they may be used as biocontrol agents. Various mechanisms by which VAM could suppress the fungal pathogens have been suggested on the basis of experimental evidences.

During the last thirty years, there has been a growing appreciation of the impor tance of VAM fungi in improving the plant growth and yield. They have been extensively studied also in India. Considering the potential importance of these organisms in the recovery of disturbed sites and their possible use in land reclamation, researches regarding their relationship to ecosystem recovery have now been initiated also in India.

Large areas of land in the country called wastelands are degraded and lying unutilized due to various constraints. Part of it called culturable, has the potential for the development of vegetation cover. On the other hand, part of it called unculturable, has no potential for the development of vegetation cover. In addition to these natural wastelands, there are large tracts of wastelands created due to human activities such as mining, deforestation etc. Such wastelands are also culturable and a vegetation cover can be developed on them after removing the constraints with some efforts.

Since a method to cultivate VAM fungi in pure culture is not available as yet, clean and high quality VAM inoculum production is not possible. However, VAM technology is gradually getting a place in agriculture as well as reclamation and afforestation programmes. The inoculum currently being used includes infested fields soils, sievings from such soils, soil and roots of greenhouse plants, or pot culture inoculum derived from surface disinfected spores of a single VAM fungus on a host plant grown in a sterilized growth medium. Attempts are being made to manipulate VAM fungi, rooting media, hosts and fertilizers in order to secure superior quality of inoculum by these methods on a large scale. In addition, other techniques like tissue culture, hydroponic system etc. are also being attempted to cultivate VAM fungi in pure culture. The Indian mycorrhizasts have also attempted to devise and develop improved methods for production and storage of commercial VAM inoculum. The following description gives an account of Indian work related to production and storage of consistently high quality disease free VAM inoculum.

The understanding of VAM symbiont and VAM symbiosis is of prime importance in manipulating VAM associations for the welfare of plants. Many contributions have been made worldover in the areas of taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, histology, cytology and genetics of VAM fungi and/or their associations with the plants. However, the share of Indian mycorrhizasts in such contributions is negligible. The following description gives an account of work done by the mycorrhizasts of the country in these areas.

Current status of researches on VA mycorrhiza and their benefits to the plants carried out by the mycorrhizasts of the country has been described in detail in chapters II to X.

Prior to the establishment of any specific forum, the pace of research on VA mycorrhiza in the country was not of desired level. However, the activities related to research on VA mycorrhiza gained unexpected momemtum when Mycorrhiza network came into exixtence in the year 1989. The network provided not only assistance and guidance of various types to the scientists working on VA mycorrhiza in the country but also offered them periodical platforms to exchange their informations and thoughts on status of researches on VA mycorrhiza and to propose future strategies of research. During the National conferences held in different parts of the country the panel of experts made certain observations regarding future prospects and strategies for research on VA mycorrhiza. They have been mentioned in the present chapter.

Helminths include the nematodes (roundworms), trematodes (flukes) and the cestodes (tapeworms). The adult worms live in intestine and discharge the eggs or larvae that comes out with the faeces. Therefore, diagnosis is based on the detection of eggs or larvae in faecal samples.

Overview of Nematode infections in humans and animals

The phylum Nematoda, (roundworms), is the second largest phylum in the animal kingdom, encompassing up to 500,000 species. Members of Nematoda are elongated, with bilaterally symmetric bodies that contain an intestinal system and a large body cavity. According to a report approximately 60 species of roundworms parasitize humans. Intestinal roundworm infections constitute the largest group of helminthic diseases in humans. According to 2005 report of World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 0.807-1.221 billion humans suffers from ascariasis, 604-795 million from trichuriasis and 576-740 million from hookworm infections worldwide.

Introduction

Mankind has been utilizing different animal species from the dawn of civilization for a variety of purposes viz., production of milk, meat, wool, egg and leather. Apart from these, various animal species are also used for draught power, companionship, entertainment, research experimentation, sports, security etc. Livestock sector plays a crucial role in rural economy and livelihood. As per report of the working group on animal husbandry and dairying, 11th five year plan: 2007-12, the livestock sector employs eight percent of the countries labour force, including many small and marginal farmers, women and landless agricultural workers. Milk production alone involves more than 30 million small producers, each raising one or two cows or buffaloes. The organic fertilizer produced by the sector is an important input to crop production and dung from livestock is widely used as fuel in rural areas. Livestock also serves as an insurance substitute, especially for poor rural households; it can easily be sold during time of distress.

Livestock sector has emerged as one of the key components of agricultural growth in developing countries in last few decades. This sector plays a significant role in the economic progress of India as it contributes 26% to the agricultural GDP and provides employment to around 18 million people. Over 70% of the rural households in India depends on livestock farming for supplementary income and is considered as an important instrument in poverty alleviation. It provides the major extra contribution to agriculture through manure, fuel fertilizer, apart from meat and milk that grant a regular supplementary income and employment not only to producers but also to huge size of the population engaged in secondary and tertiary business related to livestock. The economy of Jammu and Kashmir is also agriculture dependent and is the main occupation of majority of the rural people who earn their livelihood from it. Census figures 2011 signify that about 73% of the population of J&K lives in rural areas and are associated with agriculture and allied sectors including livestock rearing as main occupation.

Small ruminant sector, after agriculture, is the second largest means for economic sustainability and livelihood in India. It contributed Rs. 32000 crore to the gross domestic product of India in 2012 -13 despite having a potential to contribute over Rs. 150,000 crore but there are certain lacunae in system which act as its growth inhibitor. Small ruminants are the main source for rural economies due to participation of women (70% of total) and weaker sections of the rural society. Thus there is urgent need for formulating policies to support the development of the small ruminant sector.
 
Sheep and goat husbandry is a tool for poverty alleviation of the rural masses because of wide adaptability with low investments, high fertility and fecundity, low feed and management costs, higher feed conversion efficiency, quick pay off and low risk in comparison to large ruminants. The above traits of small ruminants need to be exploited for economic upliftment of small farmers.

The livestock play a significant role in generating gainful employment in rural areas, particularly among the landless and marginal farmers. The Jammu region of state of Jammu and Kashmir possesses a huge livestock population which is maintained under different management systems. The region has a vast diversity in agro-climatic conditions (comprising low altitude, middle altitude and high altitude), and animal husbandry and pasture management practices. Despite having huge livestock, the production potentials are very low. There are various factors related with low production and among them parasitic diseases rank very high.

Feeds and feeding of dairy animals are arguably the most important part of the dairy farm management. And it is not only what we feed that is important but how we manage our feeding is equally as critical. What we feed today not only determines the animal’s milk production but also influences their entire lactation cycle that follows. Dairy animal feeding with balanced ration influences health status, reproductive, productive performance and better economic return in organic environment, all of which are critical to a profitable and sustainable dairy business as well as welfare of the dairy farmers. Feed costs currently account for around 45 percent of total milk price on average, with concentrates representing around 35 percent and forages around 10 percent.

Small ruminants is a composite term used for sheep and goats. Throughout the developing countries, small ruminants make a very valuable contribution, especially to the poor in the rural areas. These contributions range from precious animal proteins (meat and milk) to fibre and skins, draught power in the highlands, food security and stable households. By and large, the importance and extent of the contributions are inadequately understood as a consequence of which these valuable genetic resources continue to be generally neglected. Research and development investments to improve the relatively low level of contribution do not match their potential importance, the contribution to nutritional security and livelihoods of the poor in rural areas. Species like goat and sheep are of short-generation interval, have a high prolificacy rate and require less land, investment and operational expenses and are better suited to the resource endowment of the poor.

Collection of faecal samples: To diagnose gastro-intestinal parasites of ruminants or other animals, the parasites or their eggs/larvae must be recovered from the digestive tract of animal or human or from the faecal/stool material.
 
The faecal samples for parasitological examination should be collected from the rectum of animals. If rectum samples cannot be obtained, fresh faecal samples may be collected from the pastures. Several samples should be collected and immediately dispatched to the diagnostic laboratory in suitable containers such as:

Introduction

Water is a precious natural resource vital, for sustaining all life on the earth. It is in a continuous circulatory movement - hydrologic cycle. It is not uniformly distributed in time and space. Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its excesses, shortages and quality deterioration, water as a resource requires special attention. On a global scale, total quantity of water available is about 1600 million cubic km. The hydrological cycle moves enormous quantities of water about the globe. However, much of the world’s water has little potential for human use because 97.5% of all water on earth is saline water. Out of remaining 2.5% fresh water, most of which lies deep and frozen in Antarctica and Greenland, only about 0.26% flows in rivers, lakes and in the soils and shallow aquifers which can be readily used. Sustainable water management in India is fast becoming a necessity, with the looming crisis over water resources in the country threatening the security and livelihood of the population and the environment over the coming decades. Managing water resources, river catchments, and coastal zones are outstanding challenges of today and tomorrow’s. Global changes ask for a comprehensive scientific approach, an international multi-disciplinary orientation and require a new mind-set towards water and coastal management problems.

Introduction

The globally growing demand for water has ushered the need for its efficient and judicial utilizations in all fields, and agriculture in particular being a single largest consumer of water. The majority of irrigation projects in India perform at a very low efficiency, which calls for application of efficient water management technologies for meeting the increasing water demands. Estimation of soil moisture or crop evapotranspiration from climatic parameters provides objective criteria for irrigation management. Methods to estimate evapotranspiration require huge climatic data, which are seldom available and not applied by common crop growers. Determining crop water requirement through soil moisture measurement at several locations is time consuming, destructive exercise, and may not give proper assessment of crop water need. The plant based indicator approach considers the plant water status for scheduling irrigation. This might be considered as the ideal criterion because the plant water is a good integrator of the soil, water and climatic parameters.

Introduction

Indian agriculture was contributing 70% to total GDP of the country at pre-independent time, but it decreased drastically year by year and contributed 66.8% in 1960, 55.6% in 1994, 27.1% in 1997 and now a days, it reached only to 25% in 2001. With the advancement of civilization our population is increased, whereas, the cultivable lands is decreased side by side, thus, on an average income of agriculture is decreased.

Gujarat is the leading state to concern with the productivity, production and the area of the some crops like Groundnut, Castor, Cotton, etc. in India. The major part of the state is surrounded by sea coast border, which is 1600 km. Gujarat is popular for production of oilseed crops like groundnut, cotton ; horticultural crops like mango, chiku, coconut, banana, papaya, citrus; spices crops like chili, cumin, funnel etc.