eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Potatois theworld’s most importantnon-grain foodcommoditythatranks fourth as main food crop in the world after rice,wheat and maize. The crop is grown inmorethan 100 countries, mainly in Asia (195.67 million tons)and Europe (121.76 million tons)(yieldin 2017 as per FAOSTAT, 2019). Because of its efficiency in producing high dry matter, energyand edibleprotein per unit area per unit time, it holds promise for food security in the scenario of ever growing world population. The full potential of this crop however, can onlybe realized if diseases and pests are kept under control, especially in asubtropical country like India, wherethe weather is highly conducive for a number of pathogens.

A number of soiland tuber borne diseases are known to affectthe potato crop causing heavy yield losses. These diseases not only reduce quality and market value of the producebut also spread to new un-infested fields through infected seed potato tubers. Diseasessuch as black scurf, common scab and powdery scab disfigure potato tubers and reduce their market value whereas dry rot, charcoal rot and softrot spoilthe harvested produce during transitand storage. Potatowart is a serious disease which once established is difficult to eradicate and thus require quarantine measures. Bacterial wilt or brown rot of potato is another serious disease which is likely to threaten potato cultivation with the rise in globaltemperature and requires immediate attention.

Potato is becoming a more and more important foodstuff in the world and therefore, its cultivation is expanding fast especially in developing countries. This intensivecultivation, in fact, has led to the emergence of diseases in certain areas where they were of less importance in the past. For instance common scab, known to be a minor disease about2-3 decades ago, is now emerging as serious problem in many potato growing areasof the country including Indo Gangetic plains. Similarly brown rot/bacterial wilt which was endemic in mid hills and plateau region, has now become a limiting factor for potato cultivation in many areasin Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, north eastern region and in Kumoan hills of Uttrakhand. Sclerotium wilt on the other hand has shown upward trend in plateau region especially in Karnataka. This is because the dynamics of pathogens keeps on changing over time and space and also with the changing farming practicesof a region. Many such new diseases are likely to emerge in a big way in future also, hence warrants regular and careful monitoring. In the following pages, the majorsoiland tuberbornediseases are discussed with special reference to India.

3.1. Paddy

3.1.1. Thrips: Stenchaetothrips biformis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

11.1 Introduction

The word Raphanus has been originated from Greek, meaning quick appearing, refers to its very rapid germination and growth characteristics. It is grown chiefly for its succulent and fleshy edible taproot eaten raw as salad or cooked. The leafy tops are very rich in vitamins A, B and C, and minerals particularly calcium and iron. Major sugar present in radish is glucose. It is a short duration crop and highly productive, so preferred as intercrop or in relay and sequential cropping. 

Introduction

India possesses abundant human resources due to its demographic dividend. With a population of approximately 1.39 billion, rural areas are home to about 68.84% of the total population, constituting more than two-thirds (Census 2011, GoI). According to the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) in 2019, about 58.3% of rural households rely on agricultural activities as their primary source of income. Despite the significant reliance on agriculture for livelihoods, the agricultural situation in India is challenging.

The horticulture sector of our country is following an increased growth in area and production by 9% and 14 % respectively for the past six years (2015-21). It is reported that the growth rate of horticultural crop production accounts for 2.7% per year. Fruits and vegetables are the major sectors contributing to total horticulture production. As per the report of second advance estimates published by Horticulture statistics division, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare during 2020-21, our country recorded the highest horticulture production during 2020-21 with an annual production of 329. 86 million tonnes from an area of 27.23 million hectares and the vegetable sector shared around 196.26 million tonnes production from 10.80 million hectare area. India is the largest producer of okra and ginger and second largest producer of potato, onion, cauliflower, brinjal, cabbage etc. Vegetables also contribute to the export market and onion, mixed vegetables, potatoes, tomato and green chilli are the main vegetables exporting from our country. It is estimated an export of worth Rs. 4969.73 crores from vegetables during the year 2020-21.

Importance of Vegetable Seed Production

Though we are leading in many of the vegetables in area and production, our national average in productivity of the major vegetables is far less compared to the world average. The country s estimated vegetable production by the year 2050 is 375 million tonnes from 15 million hectare with an average productivity of 25 t/ha. Low productivity is mainly because the farmers are still relying on old varieties which are less yielding and susceptible to pest and disease. Unavailability of the quality seeds of newly released varieties is one of the main reasons for this production gap. A substantial increase in yield and quality of vegetable crops can be achieved by adopting suitable agronomic practices, plant protection measures and use of quality seed. Now a days, there is an increased demand for good quality seeds of open pollinated varieties as well as hybrid seeds through which an increased vegetable production can be achieved for meeting the requirement of increasing population. So far, very limited number of vegetable hybrids have been developed and released by public sectors and majority of the existing promising hybrids in vegetables are from private sectors.

The biosphere or part of the earth and its atmosphere where life is found is made of different size of ecosystem regulated by solar energy. Ecosystems have both biotic and abiotic components. The biotic component comprises closely interacting groups of flora and fauna having varying energy needs which comprise heterotrophic, chemoautotrophic and photoautotrophic microorganisms.

Biodiversity refers to the richness of life as manifested by their morphological, cultural and biochemical characteristics of microorganism and their interdependence in habitat. It is because of biodiversity that each ecosystem functions as the basic life support system of the planet earth. Biodiversity sustains the food and nutrition security of human beings and mediates the ecological process by resisting environmental perturbations in a given soil and climatic conditions.

Presently greater emphasis is being placed on the biodiversity of above ground biotic components belonging to plant and animal kingdom. The living organisms in soil and their diversity in relation to their contribution to sustainable agriculture often do not receive adequate attention. Without taking into considerations the magnitude and understanding of the global diversity will be fragmentary. However, management of below ground biodiversity is being focused presently by several national and international bodies.

11.1 Learning Objectives
After comprehending this unit, we will be capable to:
i) Understand the conception of probability distribution;
ii) Appreciate the significance and applications of Binomial distribution;
iii) Understand the importance and uses of Poisson distribution;
iv) Know about the normal distribution and its’ applications.

11.2 Introduction

A probability distribution is a mathematical function that describes the likelihood of obtaining the possible outcomes of a random variable. In other words, it provides the probabilities of different events or values that a random variable can take. The sum of all probabilities in a probability distribution is equal to 1.

Abstract

Probiosis has emerged in the early 20^th century after Ellie Metchnikoff proposed his hypothesis that organisms were reponsible for longivity of ethnic people of Balkan region of Russia and ever since it has grow into a major scientific field which has its applications extending into farming, aquaculture and prophylactics in humans. Vast research was carried out on this topic and Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp, are the two important genus that are highly studied and widely recognized universally as conventional probiotics. Apart from these two genus there exists many other bacterial species which have shown promising probiotic potential. Such non conventional probiotics are widely used in some parts of world as commercial food products with health beneficial effects, pharmaceutical products or being tested for their safe utilization in human beings. The present chapter tries to covers some genera and their potential and application in prophylactics.

Scooping: It involves `Removing’ of basal plate and destroying the `Central Shoot’ of the bulb, thus encouraging the formation of bulblets round the cut edges of the scale leaves. Scooping is achieved by using a special knife or a spoon with a `Sharpened edge’ to leave a `Concave depression’ at the base of bulb. The depth of the cut is important, because the bulblets are formed on `cell tissues’ at the lowest point of the `scale leaves’.

12.1 Introduction

Carrot is valued as a nutritive food mainly because of high carotene content. The edible part of carrot is modified root (conical form, i.e., enlarged fleshy taproot). Although carrot is a biennial crop but it is grown as an annual for its root. Black carrots (Asiatic carrot root) are used for the preparation of a soft beverage called Kanji, which is supposed to be a good appetizer. Red type is good for preparing various types of sweets especially Gajar Halwa in northern India. Carrot seed oil is used for flavouring liquors and commercially used in France. The taste of carrot is due to the presence of glutamic acid. In carrot roots sucrose is the most abundant than glucose and fructose. Maximum concentration of carotene is found 85-100 days after planting. Carrot seeds contain germination inhibitor named as carrotal. 

Positive psychology plays a pivotal role in the well-being of adolescents by addressing their strengths and nurturing a growth mindset. It emphasises cultivating resilience, fostering optimism, and instilling gratitude rather than focusing on challenges only. This approach aids young individuals in developing a positive outlook on life, thereby enhancing their mental well-being and overall sense of contentment. By prompting to enhance their strengths, positive psychology equips them with the necessary skills to navigate obstacles and setbacks, resulting in enhanced academic achievements, stronger social connections, and heightened self-confidence. Essentially, it transforms potential hindrances into opportunities for personal growth and prosperity.
The well-being of adolescents is significantly affected by the domestic environment, underscoring the paramount importance of parenting. Parenting is often perceived as an inherent aptitude, typically acquired from one’s parents and through firsthand experience in child-rearing. Despite divergent perspectives on what constitutes ‘effective’ parenting, child psychologists universally acknowledge its pivotal role in fostering robust development, social integration, academic achievement, and self-assurance. Authoritative parenting – characterized by a blend of parental authority and profound attentiveness to the child’s needs – is widely regarded as the optimal approach to nurturing psychologically resilient children (Baumrind, 1991, 1993).

Abstract
 
Mention about the Great Himalayan river of Vedic Period (10000-8000 BC) is found in ancient Indian literature. The river called as ‘Saraswati’ in India and ‘Hakra’ in Pakistan, was flowing with full majesty through Thar Desert around 6000 BC and dried up during 3000 BC due to climatic and tectonic changes in Himalayan region. The relict of this lost river is still found as palaeochannels in this region. Large numbers of archaeological sites of Harappan civilization occur along the dry river bed. 

Of the total global pigeonpea production, over 90 percent of this is grown in India. The major pigeonpea growing states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, contributing to 88.2% of the total pigeonpea basket and the same holds goodover the years. Over the decades, whatever little increase in production level was observed i.e. from 1.75 mt (19701975) to 2.75 mt (20052009), it is neither uniform nor steady. It is mainly through the expansion of area from 2.52 mha to a level of 3.58 mha ( 20052009 ) without significant change in productivity which ( 1970 1975) has remained almost stagnant around 700 kg/ha (Table 1) and is a matter of real concern (Srivastava, 1993).The gross geographical shifting of area ( 467 th. ha) took place mainly from traditional areas (Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) to new and less productive areas (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa) with a netgainof area 837 th. ha in Central zoneandSouthzone includingexpandedadditional area (Table 23).

ABSTRACT

This paper takes cues from the previous paper on the evolution of IPR concepts and attempts explaining the nuggets of TRIPS and analyzes the current trends in its implementation.

Introduction

As the TRIPS Agreement signifies stronger protection of conventional and new areas of intellectual property, the question that how implementation of TRIPS could influence developed and developing countries is to be addressed. The implications of such influence have far reaching consequences in terms of socio-economic development of Nation States, including geopolitical strategies and hence, a proper understanding on the plausible influence is essential.

Abstract

Land degradation is defined as human induced or natural process that negatively affects the lands to function effectively. It is temporary or permanent lowering of the productive capacity of land (UNEP, 1992). Several definitions of land degradation have been suggested by different authorities to express the degree of deterioration in potential of land in terms of physical, chemical and biological aspects. It has both environmental and economic consequences. The information on land degradation is needed for a variety of purposes such as to improve productivity levels in degraded lands through reclamation programmes, rational land use planning and also to bring more areas under cultivation.

Horticultural crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, aromatic plants and medicinal species. They contribute substantially to nutrition, farm income, employment, exports and livelihood security. However, their productivity and quality are highly sensitive to temperature, rainfall, humidity, drought, flooding, salinity and other climate-related stresses. Changing climatic conditions affect flowering, fruit setting, maturity, nutritional composition, pest incidence and postharvest quality. Annual and perennial crops respond differently depending on their location, growth stage and environmental requirements. This chapter examines the influence of major climatic factors on horticultural production and discusses adaptive practices required to maintain productivity, quality and economic sustainability under changing environmental conditions.

Abstract

In Cyprus the National Agricultural Research System is mainly under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment (MANRE). One of its departments, namely the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), is the only recognized public institution engaged exclusively in applied agricultural research, covering the wider domain of crop and animal production. Another department of the MANRE, the Department of Agriculture (DA) has as its main mission the development of the agricultural and livestock sector through the education and guidance of the farmers, the planning and the implementation of development programmes. 

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis. According to the occupational groups involved and the nature of the disease presentations, different names have been used, e.g. seven-day fever found commonly in Japan, Cane cutter's disease in Australia, Rice field Leptospirosis in Indonesia and Fort Bragg fever, which appeared as an outbreak in the US. Weil's disease, which is one of the severe forms of this disease, occurs in many countries, including India and other South-East Asian Countries, China, continental Europe and England. Leptospirosis exists in all the five inhabited continents and in a large number of countries. It occurs in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones. Leptospirosis is also an important cause of abortions, stillbirths and reproductive failures in cattle and pigs. Periodic ophthalmia in horse is commonly associated with leptospiral infections. Leptospirosis was first recognized in humans in 1886 by Weil and characterized by icterus. Leptospira have been isolated from a variety of animal species and humans manifesting various clinical syndromes such as mud fever and swine herd disease.

Etiology: The etiologic agent of leptospirosis is Leptospira interrogans. It is a thin spiral organism 0.1mm x 6 -20mm, with tightly set coils, and it is characterized by very active motility, by rotating ("spinning") and bending. Usually one or both ends of this single-cell organism are bent or hooked, but straight forms also occur that rotate and travel more slowly than hooked forms. The cells have pointed ends, either or both of which are usually bent into a distinctive hook. Two axial filaments (periplasmic flagella) with polar insertions are located in the periplasmic space. The structure of the flagellar proteins is complex. Leptospires exhibit two distinct forms of movement, translational and nontranslational. Morphologically, all leptospires are indistinguishable, but the morphology of individual isolates varies with subculture in vitro and can be restored by passage in hamsters. Leptospires have a typical double membrane structure in common with other spirochetes, in which the cytoplasmic membrane and peptidoglycan cell wall are closely associated and are overlain by an outer membrane. Leptospiral lipopolysaccharide has a composition similar to that of other Gram-negative bacteria, but has lower endotoxic activity. Leptospires may be stained using carbol fuchsin counterstain. Leptospires are obligate aerobes with an optimum growth temperature of 28 to 30°C. They produce both catalase and oxidase. They grow in simple media enriched with vitamins (vitamins B₂ and B₁₂ are growth factors), long-chain fatty acids, and ammonium salts. Long-chain fatty acids are utilized as the sole carbon source and are metabolized by b-oxidation. Because of their narrow diameter, the leptospires are best visualized by dark-field illumination or phase contrast microscopy and they do not stain readily with aniline dyes. The free living (L. biflexa) and parasitic leptospires (L. interrogans) are morphologically indistinguishable.

Farming System Development (FSD) is better perceived as a means of facilitating interactive links between the actors (Table-1) who play significant roles in the process. A system perspective is needed in designing and evaluating suitable technologies as well as in designing policy / support system that improve both productivity and sustainability. Considerable challenges do exist in modifying the conventional top-down orientation characteristics of extension services. This requires the fundamental principle of FSD i.e. interactive mode of operation.

Introduction

After the green revolution, India achieved significant strides in agricultural output, but productivity is still poor owing to climate change and the interference of old agriculture techniques. In order to fulfill the world’s food demand in 2050, global output will have to grow by 70 % (FAO, 2020). Man has devised technical techniques for growing crops round the year.

Crop propagation is a natural process that is enhanced via the use of modified and regulated settings. These conditions are altered to guarantee that the crop in question grows to its full potential. The purpose of propagation structures is to build environments that can be changed and controlled.