eChapters

Introduction

In the 1997 WHO guidance document: “WHO/VSQ/97.01: (A WHO guide to good manufacturing practice (GMP) requirements. Part 1: Standard operating procedures and master formulae)” some basic explanations and instructions were given for preparing various documents required by Good Manufacturing Practice guidelines from WHO and from several regulatory authorities.

GMP guidelines include the requirements for documents (individual), documentation (the systems and formats for documents), and documenting (recording) of production and control activities. Most GMP guidelines provide the same or very similar information as the principles of Good Manufacturing Practice are now international in scope.

In this guidance document, the requirement for master manufacturing instructions and the requirements as given in different GMP documents, different names for these documents and various forms that they can take will be described. This is to guide vaccine manufacturers who are applying for pre-qualification or re-qualification of their product(s) in the preparation or improvement of current documents for manufacturing operations.

Definition of Communication
Communication is the process through which individuals exchange information, ideas, emotions, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal methods. It is a fundamental human activity that enables people to connect, share knowledge, and understand one another. Communication can take place in many forms, including spoken language, written text, body language, gestures, facial expressions, and other symbols.
Effective communication involves not just the transmission of a message but also ensuring that the message is accurately received and understood by the intended audience. For communication to be successful, both the sender (person delivering the message) and the receiver (person receiving the message) must actively participate in the process, with the goal of achieving shared understanding.
Key Components of Communication
• Sender – The person or entity initiating the message.
• Message – The content or information that the sender wishes to convey.
• Encoding – The process of transforming thoughts into symbols (words, images, gestures).
• Channel – The medium through which the message is sent (spoken word, written text, electronic media).
• Receiver – The person or group for whom the message is intended.
• Decoding – The process by which the receiver interprets the message.
• Feedback – The response provided by the receiver, indicating whether the message was understood.

The concept of leadership revolves around the figure of a person who wields influence over a group of individuals. Such an individual often emerges through their ability to initiate and guide social behavior, directing the efforts of others, organizing tasks, or exerting control, often leveraging their prestige, power, or positional authority. In various social contexts, a leader is recognized as someone whose ideas and actions significantly impact the thoughts and behaviors of those around them. This recognition can occur spontaneously or through deliberate selection, where certain individuals within a society operate within groups to guide and influence members towards specific actions.

Leadership, therefore, is construed as a dynamic process wherein individuals endeavor to shape the behavior of others within a tangible scenario. One commonly accepted definition, posited by Rogers and Olmsted, characterizes leadership as the endeavor to persuade individuals to collaborate towards a goal perceived as beneficial by the collective. Another perspective, articulated by Hepple, frames leadership as the role and status held by one or more individuals within the organizational structure of a group. This status enables these individuals to facilitate the functioning of the group and fulfill its objectives, which often necessitate the cooperative efforts of its members. Thus, leadership emerges as a multifaceted phenomenon, encompassing both the actions of influential individuals and the structural dynamics within group organizations.

Mastitis

Mastitis is an economically important disease of dairy animals (cows and buffaloes) caused by a wide variety of pathogens (bacteria, some viruses, fungi).Major pathogens are Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Streptococcus uberis, Str. Dysagalactiae, Campylobactor, Corynebacterium pyogenes, Klebsiella spp. Pasteurella, Pseudomonas, Mycoplasma, Enterobactor, Trichosporon spp., Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida spp., Leptospira spp. and many more. Mastitis is also seen in lactating goats and sheep. As compared to ruminants mastitis is less common in bitches. Mastitis is an inflammatory disease of the udder parenchyma irrespective of its etiology. The disease occurs in clinical and subclinical forms. Clinical mastitis is of two types viz. acute mastitis and chronic mastitis. Subclinical mastitis is characterized by an increased number of somatic cells (>100,000 cells/ml) and/or pathogens in the milk with no apparent clinical change in the udder and milk. While clinical mastitis is associated with local (hot, pain full swelling of the udder) and general symptoms along with change in milk (increased cell count, increased pathogens, physical and chemical changes in the milk).

    Q.1.    How mastitis occurs in dogs? 
    Ans.    Mastitis in dogs initiates with the infection in the milk ducts of the dogs, where in the dog’s breast is enlarged as well as milk duct is blocked. The skin around the nipple might get cracked which might give a way to bacteria. In neglected cases it leads to cause gangrenous mastitis which is a severe form of mastitis in dogs.

    Q.2.    What are common pathogens responsible for mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Escherichia coli.
 
    Q.3.    What are the characteristic features of milk cytology during mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    Milk cytology will show the presence of erythrocytes, degenerated neutrophils and bacterial agents.

    Q.4.    What characteristic physical changes of milk are seen during mastitis in bitch?
    Ans.    The viscosity of milk is increased and the colour of milk will be yellow to brown depending on the amount of blood and purulent exudates present.

Fill in the blanks
    Q.1.    ………… organisms are the common isolates from clinically affected quarters.
    Ans.    Coagulase-negative staphylococci
    Q.2.    ………….is the most common cause of mastitis in goats.
    Ans.    Staphylococcus aureus
    Q.3.    Streptococcal zooepidermicus causes …………. in does.
    Ans.    Chronic suppurative mastitis.
 
Write True/ False about the statements
    Q.1.    Pseudomonas organism causes an acute mastitis characterized by extensive necrosis and fatal septicemia.
    Ans.    True.
    Q.2.    In summer mastitis, non-lactating goats develop severe mastitis whereas lactating goats suffer from moderate degree.
    Ans.    False

    Q.1.    What is the cause of mastitis in non-lactating mare?
    Ans.    Mastitis may develop in a non-lactating mare due to abnormally high estrogen levels in her system. This excess female hormone can result from a pituitary gland tumor or consumption of high estrogen containing hay. High estrogen concentrations can cause mammary gland enlargement and trigger the production and secretion of milk, even though the mare is not pregnant and has not foaled. If the non-lactating mare begins to secrete milk due to excess estrogen, she may become a candidate for mastitis.

    Q.2.    Why equine mammary glands are less prone to mastitis than bovines?
    Ans.    The possible reasons are as follows:
    a)    Mammary glands are relatively smaller in size
    b)    Concealed position of the glands
    c)    Small milk capacity of the glands
    d)    Greater resistance to infection in equine mammary glands because of differences in endocrine environment and local immunity

Fill in the blanks

    Q.1.    ---------- and -------------- are the synonyms of mastitis of sheep.
    Ans.    Bluebag, garget
    Q.2.    In gangrenous mastitis, besides Staphylococcus aureus, ----------- organism may also be involved.
    Ans.    Clostridium perfringens A
Answer the followings

    Q.1.    What are the characteristic symptoms of mastitis in sheep?
    Ans.    The important symptoms include severe necrotizing inflammation of mammary gland, severe systemic reaction and reduced milk production
    Q.2.    Classify the sheep mastitis based on etiology and clinical symptoms.
    Ans.    a) Gangrenous mastitis by Staphylococcus aurcus mastitis b) Herd mastitis by Pasteurella hemolytica
    Q.3.    When the risk of mastitis in sheep is high?
    Ans.    During summer month between parturition and weaning

    Q.1.    The mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) is a disease syndrome of which animal species? 
    Ans.    Swine

    Q.2.    What is MMA syndrome?
    Ans.    MMA syndrome is post parturient disease of sows and manifested as fever, anorexia, lethargy, agalactia, mastitis, swollen udder and appearance of vulvar discharge due to development of metritis.
 
    Q.3.    What is the critical time of occurrence of MMA in sows?
    Ans.    The mastitis-metritis-agalactia (MMA) syndrome occurs between 12-48 hrs of farrowing in sows.

    Q.4.    What is the probable causes for the development of MMA syndrome?
    Ans.    The probable causes of MMA syndrome are infectious mastitis, metritis, more feeding at pregnant period, nutritional deficiency, endocrine disorders and constipation.

According to International Dairy Federation(IDF),1980, Mastitis also called as ‘mammitis’ is defined as an inflammation of the udder, almost always of microbial origin and is the outcome of a local or a general infection. The common symptoms are related to inflammation, viz., swollen, hot, red, and painful udders. Mastitis can be classified based on symptoms or on the causative organism.

A) Forms of mastitis based on symptoms

    1.    Acute or clinical
    2.    Sub-acute or subclinical
    3.    Chronic.

       Crop                Highest producer state
    301.     Arecanut     (a) Assam
    302.     Cashew nut     (b) Kerala
    303.     Rubber     (c) Andhra Pradesh 
    304.     Tea     (d) Karnataka

Materia Medica

The word ‘Materia medica’ is a Latin term that means medical matters or materials of medicine. All systems of medicine, based on drug therapies, have their own Materia medica. It is known by different names in different systems of medicine. It is termed as pharmacology in Allopathy, Dravya Guna in Ayurveda, Guna Padam in Siddha, and Materia Medica in Homeopathy. Pharmacology is based on physico-chemical properties of drug substances. Dravya Guna is based on Thridosa Sidhanda (vatha, pitha and kapha). Guna padam is based on Mucheer Amaippu (vatham, pitham, silatumam). Materia medica is based on dynamic properties of drugs applied on Law of Similars.

General Materia Medica

It is the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance (drug) used for healing with their sources, preparations, doses, and use.

2.1 Introduction

Many complicated engineering principles are to be analyzed and applied, before any food processing operations takes shape of a commercially viable enterprise. The size and type of the required equipments have to be specified and their sequences have to be arranged. Further, the process analysis consists of understanding of material and energy balances. This chapter provides the application of steady state conservation of mass and energy equations to analyze food-processing operations.

The present experiment entitled, “Protected Nutrient Technology for Crossbred Cattle” was conducted at Research Cum Development Project on Cattle, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairy Science, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri Dist. Ahmednagar, India located at 19o 23’ 0" N and 74o 39’ 0" E at an altitude of 511 mtr. Minimum and maximum ambient temperature range from 10 to 20^ºC in winter and 30 to 40°C in summer with annual rainfall of 561.6 mm

Culture Media and Reagents

The media used throughout the study were procured from Hi- Media Laboratories, Mumbai, India and the chemicals used were procured locally. Composition of each medium is as follows:

The present study on trichology of domestic and wild animals was conducted in the Postgraduate laboratory of the Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Histol ogy, Nagpur Veterinary College, Nagpur. The study was undertaken with an aim of species differentiation from the guard hair of domestic as well as wild animals. The hair samples were collected from a total of eight domestic animal species and six wild animal species. Six animals from each species were studied and only three animals studied from the Sambar species as only three animals from this species was reported for post-mortem to the Nagpur Veterinary College, Nagpur within the period of research.

Q. 1 The high moisture grain should be kept in
(A) Air tight structure     (B) Aerated structure
(C) Pucca kothi             (D) Gunny bags in closed room

Material handling includes a number of operations that can be executed either by hand (manual) or by mechanical means or devices to convey material and to reduce the human drudgery.

The most common types of mechanical devices for grain handling are;

The research methodology constitutes a comprehensive and well-structured plan of action for conducting the investigation and serves as a blueprint for the research process. Its purpose is to gain an understanding of the underlying concepts, methods, and techniques employed to define the study, gather relevant information, analyse data, and interpret the findings, thereby revealing concrete evidence and formulating theories.

In this chapter, an in-depth exploration of the research methodology is undertaken 
to comprehend the concepts, methods, and techniques employed for designing the 
study, gathering data, conducting data analysis, and interpreting the results. To 
facilitate clarity and ease of comprehension, the chapter has been divided into the 
following sub-headings:
 1. Research Design
 2. Locale of research
 3. Pilot study
 4. Sampling Design
 5. Variables and their Empirical measurement
 6. Methods of Data collection
 7. Preparation of Interview Schedule
 8. Item analysis and Expert’s rating for devising scoring technique for variables
 9. Pre-testing of Interview Schedule
 10. Data Processing and Analysis for FCM
 11. Statistical Tools used for Data Analysis
 12. Software used for Data Analysis 5.1. Research Design
A research design provides a structured approach for researchers to answer their research questions in an unbiased, precise, and cost-effective way. It establishes 
a framework for testing relationships between variables and ensures that the 
research is going on right direction. There are various types of research designs available, and the current study uses the descriptive and diagnostic research design. 
Descriptive research design is used to collect accurate and relevant information 
about the current state of a phenomenon, and to draw valid and generalized 
conclusions wherever possible. 

The research methodology constitutes a comprehensive and well-structured plan of action for conducting the investigation and serves as a blueprint for the research process. Its purpose is to gain an understanding of the underlying concepts, methods, and techniques employed to define the study, gather relevant information, analyse data, and interpret the findings, thereby revealing concrete evidence and formulating theories.

In this chapter, an in-depth exploration of the research methodology is undertaken to comprehend the concepts, methods, and techniques employed for designing the study, gathering data, conducting data analysis, and interpreting the results. To facilitate clarity and ease of comprehension, the chapter has been divided into the following sub-headings:

1. Research Design

2. Locale of research

3. Pilot study

4. Sampling Design

5. Variables and their Empirical measurement 6. Methods of Data collection

7. Preparation of Interview Schedule

8. Item analysis and Expert’s rating for devising scoring technique for variables

9. Pre-testing of Interview Schedule

10. Data Processing and Analysis for FCM

11. Statistical Tools used for Data Analysis

12. Software used for Data Analysis

Strategic partnerships and productive outreach play a crucial role for new technologies to successfully reach the market, drive growth, and strengthen a country’s global competitiveness, Outreach programs have various benefits, ranging from technology transfer awareness, communication of stakeholders, industry, government, to academy partnership promotions. These efforts help in establishing connections, communicating opportunities, and encouraging active engagement from key stakeholders. Outreach activities can be performed under two broad categories:
1. Written communication includes all communication which can be viewed, shared, or made accessible for a set of people in a passive manner. This includes reports, newsletters, guidance, and online content which provide insights of worth for stakeholders.
2. Human outreach includes all direct communication like c face-to-face or verbal form communication it included conferences, conventions, workshops, seminars and personal communication with industry leaders.
The type of outreach creates stronger, more personal connections. An effective outreach strategy usually combines both human and written outreach efforts. By following this strategy TTOs can expand and strengthen partnerships, and make it easier for research-led innovations to get transition from lab to market more effectively. This chapter explores key outreach models, strategic networking approaches, and proven practices for building impactful partnerships in technology transfer.

The present investigation entitled “Diagnostic Study of Farmers in context of Price spread analysis, marketing pattern and Potential assessment of agricultural diversification in Chenani Block of Udhampur district” was carried out during the year 2015. The sampling structure, experimental procedures and techniques adopted during the course of investigation have been described in this chapter.

3.1 Locale of study

The present study was conducted in Chenani block of Udhampur district in Jammu and Kashmir state. Mantalai, Kosar, Bupp and Bashath villages were randomly selected.

3.2 Climate and rainfall

The Jammu and Kashmir state is situated between 32⁰.17'–36⁰.58' North latitude and 37⁰.26´–80⁰.30´East longitude. The state is the northern most part of the India is girdled by Tibet to the east, China and Afghanistan to the north, to its west is Pakistan. To its south lies the states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and have been divided into three agro climatic divisions’ viz. outer plain and outer hills, middle mountains and Kashmir valley and inner Himalayas (Ladakh). The outer plains and outer hills includes Kathua and Jammu districts, extends up to Shivalik hills in the north. According to NARP (National Agricultural Research Project) classification this state has been divided into four agro-climatic zones: Temperate, Sub-tropical, Intermediate and Cold-Arid zone. In summer hot dry winds from plains of Punjab make it very hot, dust storms are common with occasional rain. Rainfall occurs from July to September. Average rainfall is 1143 mm and temperature shoots up to 46⁰C during May to June. During December to February temperature is between 13.5⁰C to 20⁰C, rainfall is 150 mm and in upper reaches there is snow. In the region of middle mountains and Kashmir valley winters are very cold. There is snowfall during winter and subzero temperature. In valley, winters are long and summers are short but pleasant. Average rainfall is 732 to 854 mm. The maximum temperature hardly ever goes beyond 35⁰C. In region of inner Himalayas, days are hot and there are no clouds in the sky. Winters are very cold. Temperature falls as low as minus 23⁰C. The average rainfall is 976 mm and humidity level is very low.

3.1 Introduction

Greenhouses are buildings with a controlled environment that facilitate plant culture and development. They offer protection from adverse external weather conditions, high temperatures, strong winds, and pests, while providing an ideal environment for plant growth. The construction of a greenhouse involves the use of various materials to ensure its structural stability, longevity, light transmission, and insulation. The different components of the greenhouse, such as the frame, flooring, and covering, are constructed using different materials such as wood, aluminum, steel, concrete, soil, gravel, and more.

Materials Management deals with purchasing and controlling of the materials used in the production process.

Materials (Goods) Planning and Control

Decisions to be taken in this are:

• Amount of materials needed for output desired
• Amount of inventory and its storage and reordering
• Vendor relations
• Quality materials and price per unit
• Quantity and time of order
• Methods of receiving and transporting
• Handling of defective materials and stock

Policies and procedures should be established so that most of these decisions become routine in nature. When exceptions occur, the concerned authority should correct them.

Classification of Materials

Broadly there are two groups of materials used for making farm machines namely metallic and non-metallic:

Aim: To prepare a list of materials used for ammobilisation for fractured limb with gum bandage. Materials required

Aquariums are purpose-built enclosures designed to simulate natural aquatic environments, offering a stable habitat for fish, plants, and other waterdwelling organisms. Their construction requires careful planning to ensure structural durability, environmental stability, and long-term functionality. The materials used in building aquariums are crucial, as they directly impact the tank’s strength, clarity, water resistance, ease of upkeep, and overall visual appeal.
Glass, acrylic, and silicone sealants are among the most commonly utilized materials in aquarium construction, each bringing distinct advantages. Glass is known for its clear visibility and scratch resistance, while acrylic is preferred for larger or uniquely shaped tanks due to its lighter weight and design flexibility. Silicone adhesives play a vital role in sealing joints and enhancing the tank’s waterholding
capability.
Material selection varies depending on several factors, including the tank’s size, design, placement, budget, and whether it will house freshwater or marine species. A solid grasp of these materials is essential for creating safe, efficient, and attractive aquariums—whether for personal use, public display, or commercial purposes.
GLASS, ACRYLIC, SILICONE ADHESIVES
Glass
Glass has been a staple material for centuries, used across a variety of applications, including aquariums. It’s the most familiar choice for fish tanks due to its strength, transparency, and cool, smooth surface. Its solid feel and clarity make it a favorite for both hobbyists and professionals.

So far, we have seen the examples in which mode of inheritance of a particular character is tied to the behaviour of the nucleus or more specifically to the chromosomes. In other words, transmission of a character and its appearance in the individuals can be predicted from the knowledge of chromosome segregation and independent assortment. This analogy gets further strengthened on the ground that the DNA has been considered as the basic genetic material and practically all the cellular DNA is localized in the chromosomes. It has also been seen that DNA does not produce an organism alone but obviously depends upon an already existing medium in order to function. Thus, genotypic effects may considerably get modified by the environment. In the cell itself, one important source of environmental effect is the cytoplasm immediately surrounding the nucleus. The components of the cytoplasm may show wide variation between the individuals and therefore it cannot be ruled out that a genotype in one cytoplasm may function somewhat differently than the same genotype placed directly into another cytoplasm. It is well known fact that the cytoplasmic contribution of one of the parents in form of an egg is considerably larger than the cytoplasmic contribution of the other parent in form of sperm. For example, cross-fertilization between two strains capable of producing both sperm and eggs, leads to contribution of ‘A’ genotype and ‘a’ egg cytoplasm in one case and of ‘B’ genotype and ‘b’ egg cytoplasm in the other case. Thus, the cross-fertilized diploid zygotes have two possible genotypic-cytoplasmic combinations, namely, AB-a, and AB-b depending upon which strain provides the egg. If the egg is contributed by the A parent, then the genotype of the progeny shall be AB-a, and if the egg is contributed by the B parent, then the genotype of the progeny shall be AB-b. If each such cytoplasm produces a unique phenotype, then AB-b would have the same b phenotype as BB-b individuals. Such effects produced by the egg cytoplasm are termed as maternal effects.

7.1 The Formula Palette

By clicking on the equals sign in the formula bar a drop – down panel called the formula palette appeared.

Consider an example, type number 25 in cell A1 and move the cell pointer to cell B2. type or click the equal sign in the formulabar. Adrop – down panel will display formula result = and wait for further inputs. Enter sqrt result to 5 at B2.

The dialog box divides into parts as

(a) Name of the function at the top left of the argument entry box.

(b) Below of this there is the definition or description of the function.

(c) Next, there is an entry explanation.

(d) Formula result.

Things to remember: Any statistical or mathematical function can be activated with = (equal to) sign.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The average value of a random fenamenon is termed as “Mathematical Expectation” or “Expected value” of random fenamenon.

Q.2 The mathematical expression to compute the expected value of a discrete random variable X with its p.m.f. f(x) is def ned as

Introduction

Flat plate collector is the heart of a solar heat collection system designed for delivery of heated fluid in the low to medium temperature range (5o70oC above ambient temperature) for applications, such as water heating, space heating, drying and similar industrial applications. The flat plate collectors absorb both beam and diffuse radiation. The absorbed radiation is converted into heat which is transferred to water or air flowing through the collector tubes or duct, respectively. Such collectors do not require tracking of the sun and little maintenance is required.

The conventional flat plate solar air heater, shown in Fig. 7.1, consists of a flat blackened absorber plate, a transparent cover (such as a glass cover) at the top and insulation at the bottom and on the sides. The air to be heated flows through the rectangular duct below the absorber plate. The glass cover transmits a major part of solar radiation incident upon it to the absorber plate where it is converted into heat. The glass is, however, opaque to longwavelength radiation and thus it does not allow the infrared radiation from the heated absorber plate to escape.

Karwa et al. (2002) have presented the following deductions of heat collection rate and pumping power equations for the flat plate solar air heater.

Short Transmission Line

A short transmission line is defined as a transmission line with an effective length less than 80 km (50 miles), or with a voltage less than 69 kV. Unlike medium transmission lines and long transmission lines, the line charging current is negligible, and hence the shunt capacitance can be ignored.

For short length, the shunt capacitance of this type of line is neglected and other parameters like electrical resistance and inductor of these short lines are lumped, hence the equivalent circuit is represented as given below. Let’s draw the vector diagram for this equivalent circuit, taking receiving end current Ir as reference. The sending end and receiving end voltages make angle with that reference receiving end current, of φs and φr , respectively.

Solar Photovoltaic

A single solar cell cannot provide required useful output. Therefore, to increase output power level of a PV system, it is required to connect number of such PV solar cells. A solar module is normally series connected sufficient number of solar cells to provide required standard output voltage and power. One solar module can be rated from 3 watts to 300 watts. The solar modules or PV modules are commercially available basic building block of a solar electric power generation system.

Actually, a single solar PV cell generates very tiny amount that is around 0.1 watt to 2 watts. But it is not practical to use such low power unit as building block of a system. So required number of such cells are combined together to form a practical commercially available solar unit which is known as solar module or PV module.

7.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the development of data logger of agricultural field parameter monitoring system with MATLAB. The system comprises of Arduino, water level sensor, humidity sensor, light sensor, soil moisture sensor, temperature sensor, smoke detector, power supply, PC with MATLAB. The system is designed to monitor the environment and agriculture field parameters. The field device is designed to collect all physical parameters and same is communicated serially to MATLAB with I/O package. Fig.7.1 shows block diagram of the system. Table.7.1 shows the component list required to develop the system.

Eigen values of the matrix are

(A) 1 and 2             (B) 1 and 3

(C) 1 and 4            (D) 2 and 3

8.1 Matrix

An arrangement of m×n elements into m rows and n columns is called a matrix. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers usually represented by enclosing the array in brackets.

Order of a Matrix : The number of rows and columns is called the ‘dimension’ or ‘order’ of the matrix.

Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. The order of a matrix is written as r x c, where r is the no. of rows and c is the no. of columns. The numbers included in a matrix are called elements of the matrix. The name of the matrix is denoted by an uppercase English alphabet.

Maturity at harvest is the most important determinant of storage life and final fruit quality. Maturity indices are determined for many fruit, vegetable and floral crops. Harvesting crops at proper maturity allows handlers to begin their work with the best possible quality produce. Produce harvested too early may lack flavour and may not ripen properly, while produce harvested too late may be fibrous or over ripe.
 
Almost all fruits reach their best eating quality when allowed to ripen on the tree or plant (exceptions e.g., pears, avocados, and bananas). In general, fruits become sweeter, more colourful, and softer as they mature. A few fruits are usually picked mature but unripe so that they withstand post harvest handling system when shipped long distances.  Most of  currently used maturity evaluation is based on a compromise between those methods that would ensure the best eating quality and those that provide flexibility in transportation and marketing.  Optimum harvesting stage depends upon type of fruit or vegetable and their final use. Such a division is usually based on their classification according to physiology, environmental conditions, ripening bahaviour and nutritional aspect. Some of the classifications, important for their harvesting and storage are briefed in  subsequent sections.

Physiological Development

Fruits and vegetables can be divided into 3 stages based n their physiological development i.e. growth, maturation and senescence.

Growth: This generally refers to cell division, enlargement and differentiation ultimately giving a particular size, weight and volume to the commodity.

Maturation: It is initiated before the ceasation of growth and lasts till the onset of senescence.

Senescence: The stage when anabolic (synthetic) processes almost terminate and catabolic (degradative) processes are initiated and speeded up causing ageing and finally death of tissues.

Ripening: Stage that begins with the last stages of maturation and lasts till the beginning (first stage) of senescence. Ripening is a very important event in the life of a plant as it transforms a physiologically mature but inedible (or not preferred to be eaten) plant part into an edible, visually and olfactorily attractive and tasty commodity. Ripening marks the completion of developmental phase and is an irrevessible event.

3.1. Maturity

• During process of maturation, fruit receives regular supply of food material from plant.

• When mature, abscission or corky layer forms at stern end stops inflow.

• Afterwards, fruit depends on own reserves, carbohydrates dehydrated and sugars accumulate until sugar acid ratio form.

• In addition, typical flavour and characteristic colour also develop.

• Stage of maturity at the time of picking influence storage life and quality of fruit

• Fruits harvested over mature or full ripe are easily susceptible to microbial and physiological spoilage and storage life reduction.

• Necessary to pick up fruits or vegetables at correct stage of maturity to facilitate proper ripening, distant transportation and maximum storage life.

• Principles of harvest maturity

? Harvested commodity should have its peak acceptable quality when it reaches the consumer.

? Produce should develop an acceptable flavour or appearance.

? Produce should have optimum size and shape required by the market.

Maturity

It is derived from Latin word ‘Maturus’ which means ripen. It is that stage of fruit development, which ensures attainment of maximum edible quality at the completion of ripening process.

Maturation

It is the developmental process by which the fruit attains maturity. It is the transient phase of development from near completion of physical growth to attainment of physiological maturity. There are different stages of maturation e.g. immature, mature, optimally mature, over mature.

Maturity Indices

The factors for determining the harvesting of horticulture commodities according to consumer purpose and type of commodity.

Maturity Indices is two type

1. MATURITY INDICES

Maturity indices (right time of harvesting) are quality factors that give clues as to when a product should be harvested to allow marketing flexibility and ensure the attainment of minimum acceptable quality to the user. It also refers to the set of criteria used to determine the stage of maturity for harvesting the horticultural crops. Commodities harvested either pre-mature or too late are more susceptible to postharvest physiological disorders, diseases and have poor shelf life than harvested at right stage of maturity. The pickers/ handlers are trained in methods of identifying produce that is ready for harvest. However, optimum harvesting stages depends upon type of produce and their final use. Horticultural crops may be harvested at two main maturity levels i.e., physiological maturity and commercial or horticultural maturity. Therefore, the proper stage/maturity indices for harvesting of all horticultural crops should be identified for their implementation during harvesting. Horticultural maturity in relation to developmental stages of the plants is depicted in Fig 3.1.