eChapters

This procedure allows us to mix two feed stuffs with different nutrient concentrations and come up with a mixture of the desired total concentration. For this square to work, the desired diet nutrient concentration must be between the nutrient concentrations of the two feed stuffs as well as in the same unit. The procedure can be used for Crude Protein, Energy, Minerals and so on and so forth.Also, in place of percentage, calories, parts per million/ billion / trillion and other units of measurement can be used.

Double Pearson Square Method

Sometimes, we might want to have the exact amounts of two major nutrients such as - Crude Protein and Energy.

For example, suppose we want a final mixture with 12 % Crude Protein (CP) and 74 % Total Digestible Nutrient (T.D.N.). We have :

5.1 Introduction

Phosphorus fertilization is a problem in acid soils due to the high fixation characteristics of these soils. Soluble phosphorus carriers such as triple super phosphate tend to get reverted into insoluble and slowly soluble forms, for e.g. iron and aluminium phosphates.  Some soils in Mauritius have been shown to fix up to 90% of applied phosphorus. The fixation characteristics as related to soil properties have been studied for some soils of Mauritius. Rock phosphate offers a good alternative or complement to triple super phosphate.  In volcanic soils of Chile it is recommended to apply rock phosphate in combination with triple super phosphate because of the high phosphorus-retention capacity of these soils.  However, in Western Australia it has been shown that rock phosphate response is low. Possible explanations are slow dissolution of rock phosphate due to the moderately acid pH (5.5 -6.5), low pH-buffering capacity, low calcium absorption in soil, which increases concentration of calcium in soil solution, and poor water holding capacity of these soils.

The biofilm formation is usually assayed by using Congo Red Agar (CRA) plate test. According to a method developed by Freeman et al., (1989) the isolates are stored in nutrient agar slants and screened for biofilm formation ability using CRA plates. Biofilm forming strains are observed as dark black colonies while others as red colonies on the CRA plates. Recently, the concept of these biofims have changed with new imaging technologies, biochemical methods and molecular ecosystem biology tools. A biofilm structure can be observed in 3-D form to the nano-scale level (Neu and Lawrence, 2015). A lot of studies are being conducted on the physiology of the biofilm cells, the genotypic and phenotypic variation among the biofilm community, as well as the biofilm metabolome, proteome and transcriptome (Raes and Bork, 2008). This will help in the the development of efficient methods to control deleterious biofilms (clinical biofilms, food contaminants, biofouling on industrial equipment and on ship hulls) and to enhance and modulate beneficial ones

Q1. Resistance in tetracycline is due to mutational changes in

1. Tet A gene
2. Kat G
3. Par C par E
4. Inh A

Q2. Single step mutation can be seen in

1. Erythromycin
2. Tetracycline
3. Chloramphenicol
4. Rifampicin

Q3. Multistep mutation is observed in

1. Streptomycin
2. Rifampicin
3. Both A and C
4. Tetracycline

The lack of mechanistic understanding of probiotic activity is a major drawback for the prediction of safety of probiotic intervention. The complex gut-associated microbial ecosystem and nutritionally related factors are the most important environmental triggers for the development and modification of chronic degenerative diseases including immune and metabolic pathologies. In fact, the interaction between the gut microbial ecosystem and the host is considered to be a critical factor in overall health or disease. Whether probiotics will exert protective, harmful, immune-stimulating or immune-suppressing effects on a host is dependent on the interaction between the microbial signals, the genetic make-up of the host and the effects by the environment. Many studies have revealed that certain probiotic bacteria stimulate immune cell proliferation and activity as evidenced by the production of cytokines and antibodies, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the immune response against pathogens. Ng et al. (2009)

ABSTRACT

The antagonistic organisms are known to bring out action on the pathogen by various mechanisms. Based on in vitro screening of epiphytic microbes from cocoa pod surface against Phytophthora palmivora, the incitant of pod rot of cocoa, a promising isolate of Trichoderma viride and two isolates of Pseudomonas fluorescens were selected. The mechanisms of antagonistic action of these selected epiphytic antagonists against P. palmivora were studied in comparison with the standard cultures of T. harzianum and P. fluorescens. The selected epiphytic fungal antagonist T. viride and standard culture of T. harzianum were found to be efficient parasites of P. palmivora. The hyphae of the pathogen were seen tightly held by coiling with hyphae of the fungal antagonists. The hyphae of the antagonists penetrated the host hyphae at several points and grew to its inner cavity. The fungal antagonists also caused disintegration of the pathogen hyphae, besides free intermingling, which resulted in malformation of host hyphae. The ability of the two epiphytic P. fluorescens isolates and standard culture of P. fluorescens in producing HCN and siderophores was assessed. It was found that these isolates produced HCN and siderophores in appreciable levels thereby suppressing the P. palmivora. Though, more than one mechanism may operate in suppressing the pathogen, the relative importance of a particular mechanism may vary with different conditions, which needed to be further investigated.

Mechanism of Bioinputs explains the biological processes through which beneficial microorganisms and other bioinputs influence plants, pathogens, and agricultural ecosystems. The chapter examines direct and indirect plant-growth-promoting mechanisms of rhizobacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, endophytes, and biocontrol microbes. It also covers entomopathogenic bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses, and the modes of action of microbial and botanical biopesticides, predators, parasitoids, and semiochemicals. Environmental factors, microbial variability, pathogen interactions, and relationships with other organisms are considered as influences on biocontrol performance. The chapter therefore connects biological mechanisms with practical application, helping readers understand why particular bioinputs work under specific agricultural conditions. across varied farming conditions.

As discussed in previous chapters, the damage to the plants due to frost occurs as a result of frost-induced freezing and not merely because of the low temperature exposure. The cells of sensitive plant species get injured when the temperature drops below a critical level. When the damage caused is associated with sub-zero temperature, it is called freezing injury. And, when it is caused due to a temperature above 00 C, it is called chilling injury.

Various types of cropping systems are practiced in a farm or region. They should be evaluated to find out their stability and relative advantages in yield. Again, comparisons may be made with reference to land use efficiency, biological potential and economics. Following are the important indices for assessment of competition and yield advantage:

1. Relative yield total (RYT): The oldest establishment measure of the yield advantage of crop mixtures is the Relative Yield Total. The RYT index was designed as a measure of the extent to which various crop components shared common resources, rather than as a direct measure of yield advantage.

Hybrid technology is one of the options to boost crop productivity. Hybrids give more yield than improved varieties under optimum crop production conditions. Further, uniform size, earliness, better adaptability to adverse environments, better transportability due to better keeping quality and resistance to stresses are certain additional advantages of growing hybrids with better monetary return to the growers. Hence in coming years, hybrid technology has to go a long way in our country to meet the future challenges (Kalloo et al., 2000). Thus, it is pertinent to have an overview of the methods of the hybrid seed production technology. Various methods are as follows:

ABSTRACT

Heavy metal contaminated soils are biologically inactive and extremely poor in soil fertility status. These metals are highly resistant and cannot be easily degraded by either chemical reactions or amendments. Microorganisms are biological softwares capable of degrading the metals efficiently. Among microorganisms, mycorrhizas are known to circumvent metal toxicities through a series of processes that assist in immobilization in biological systems which converts toxic metals into less or nontoxic forms. There are five mechanisms such as biosorption, solubilization, hyphal transport, detoxification and dilution are involved in promoting tolerance of host plants to heavy metal toxicities. These processes are strategies that can be exploited to phytoremediate the contaminated soils. The phytoremediation strategies encompass tolerance of mycorrhizal fungi, phytostabilization (preventing entry of heavy metals into plants), phytoextraction (luxuriant uptake and transport to shoots) and intercropping or crop rotation with mycorrhizal dependent hyperaccumulators or non-hyperaccumulators. Despite mycorrhizas are natural, the indigenous population is not sufficient enough to induce tolerance of host plants to abiotic and biotic stress conditions. This necessitates adopting recommended agronomic practices to promote mycorrhizal colonization in natural agro-ecosystem or to derive full benefits from phytoremediation strategies. Thus mycorrhizas are important naturally occurring microorganisms capable of withstanding highly contaminated metal sites and offer protection against phytotoxicities caused by heavy metals.

Introduction
The advent of antibiotics, beginning with penicillin in 1941, transformed medicine by rendering bacterial infections treatable [1]. However, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a profound threat, enabling bacteria to survive in the presence of drugs designed to inhibit or kill them and these are rooted in ancient microbial ecosystems evidenced by resistome genes in 30,000-year-old permafrost [2]. AMR has been exacerbated by human practices: approximately 50% of antibiotic prescriptions are inappropriate, 70% of global antibiotics fuel agriculture, and environmental pollution creates resistance hotspots [1]. By 2025, AMR directly causes 1.3 million deaths annually, with economic losses projected at $100 trillion by 2050 [1]. Priority pathogens, including carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and colistin-resistant strains via mcr-1, challenge last-resort therapies, particularly in low-resource settings [3]. This chapter delivers a technically extraordinary exploration of AMR, structured into genetic, biochemical, and evolutionary mechanisms, each elaborated with molecular precision and step-by-step clarity for learners. Genetic alterations provide the DNA-level foundation, biochemical pathways execute molecular defenses, and evolutionary forces drive adaptation and dissemination. It ensures scientific rigor and broad appeal for students, researchers, clinicians, and policymakers.
Historical Context and Global Burden
AMR emerged shortly after antibiotics’ introduction, with penicillin-resistant S. aureus identified by 1942 due to ß-lactamase production [1]. The 1960s

Biofertilizers improve the plant growth due to changes in the microbial community of rhizosphere by production of several substances. Normally, biofertilizers promote plant growth either by facilitating nutrient absorption or by secretion of plant hormones. Biofertilizers also cause inhibitory effects by acting as biocontrol agents on various pathogens so that the growth of plant is enhanced. The mode of action could be either direct or indirect methods

Email can be a wonderful tool for delivering feedback to students. Once a basic understanding of feedback’s role in learning has been established, one can begin to focus on how best to take advantage of the pedagogical functions of the com- munication medium. There is little doubt that email is changing how we commu- nicate and learn. For example, in an investigation of the effectiveness of email as a communication and instructional aid between instructors and students, Yu and Yu (2002) found “empirical evidence supporting the usefulness of e-mail as a prom- ising aid to promote student cognitive growth pertaining to computer knowledge and skills”.

Tao and Boulware (2002) suggest that email communication benefits teachers by “identif[ing] instructional focus and tak[ing] advantage of instructional moments to fit the developmental needs of their students in authentic situations”. They also find that email motivates learners, encourages authentic communication and cre- ates new learning opportunities.

Thank you, Dr Tikoo, for a nice introduction and thanks to ATPBR for inviting me to deliver this WebCon. I would like to start with a small introduction that this particular talk is structured as a general introduction to thrips and thrips-transmitted viruses. There is a bit of interest in everyone with regard to the black thrips which has caused havoc in the last couple of years. The topic has significant importance to plant breeders with regard to the new invasive Western Flower thrips, one of the most dreaded thrips, across the globe and the problems associated with the management of resistance in protected cultivation, and, finally how do we go about with regard to the entire management of the thrips and thrips-transmitted virus problems.

Introduction

India’s food problem dates back prior to independence. In the beginning, India’s food problem was one of scarcity, shortage of rice after the separation of Myanmar (Burma) from India in 1937 and shortage of wheat, also after the partition of the country in 1947. Initially, the major concern was to increase the domestic supplies either through increased production or through imports or through both. In the second half of the 1950s and during the 1960s the major concern was shifted to control of food grains prices. The Government of India entered into an agreement in 1956 with the USA known as PL 480 agreement for the import of rice and wheat. The Government found the PL 480 food imports a good tool to stabilize food prices in the country. Infact, PL 480 imports were the basis of our agricultural and industrial development. The frequent occurrence of flood and drought, food shortage resulted famine in several corners of the country during pre-independence period and even after independence.

Mechanization of agriculture is essential for optimal utilization of vital inputs for crop production system such as soil, water, seed, fertilizer, pesticide and labour force leading to higher productivity and reduced cost of production for greater profitability. Thus with the support of mechanization, the agrarian sector as an enterprise needs to become sustainable and economically competitive which coincides with the objectives of the Integrated farming System concept. Mechanization also imparts capacity to the farmers to carry out farm operations with dignity, comfort and freedom from drudgery, making the farming agreeable vocation for educated rural youth as well. It helps the farmers to achieve timeliness and precisely meter and apply costly input for better efficacy and achieve higher productivity with reduced application of inputs. Small and marginal farmers now make use of high capacity agricultural machines on custom hire basis to enjoy the economic benefits. As such, the broad subject of agriculture can be understood as production agriculture, which takes care the field operations in the crop production system for higher productivity and post production agriculture, better known as post harvest technology which looks for reducing the loss of produce and value addition for economic gains. The IFS outlines the need of sustainability for farmers with limited resources of land, water and economy while mechanization aims at maximizing the profitability in agricultural system with a commercial attitude. Since the availability of labour force during peak hours of need and hike in wage very often creates hindrance in production and post production agriculture, mechanization can be the right answer to harness the benefits of IFS approach.

Commercialization is essential for agricultural development, which, amongst other things, entails mechanization of agriculture to reduce the cost of production and to increase the yield of crops. In some instances, agricultural commercialization may take place even without mechanization. However, due to the ever increasing agricultural labor scarcity in developing countries, an extensive scale agricultural commercialization may not be possible without mechanization.

The various farm operations involved in crop production system are land leveling, tillage for seed bed preparation, sowing and planting, weeding and interculture, spraying, harvesting and threshing. The mechanization of all these operation has been appreciated by the farmers which are discussed in the following paragraphs.

3.1. Concept of farm mechanization

To apply the principles of engineering and technology to do the agricultural operations in a better way to increase crop yield.

Development, application and management of all mechanical aids for field operation, water control, material handling, storage and processing.

Mechanical aids include hand tools, animal drawn implements, power tillers, tractors, engines, electric motors, grain processing and hauling equipments.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa), the staple food of more than half of the population of the world, is an important target to provide food security and livelihoods for millions. As a major producer and exporter of rice in the world, India reportedly produces around 152.60 MT tonnes of rice per year. When cereal crops are harvested, it is estimated that half of the process ends with agricultural waste or crop residue as straw. It is a non-edible product, often left in the field after harvesting. Traditionally, paddy straw was seen as a versatile by-product of rice cultivation because it was used in many ways including fodder for livestock and as a building material. However, the increase in productivity and area under cultivation of rice has led to a huge production of rice straw. Moreover, mechanization decreased the animal dependency and hence the feed requirement. So the most effective way of disposing of the residue is seen as burning of biomass in the paddy field. It is important to mention that open field burning is a widely practiced method all over the world however its intensity varies. For instance (National Conference, 2017) estimated that less than a quarter of rice straw is probably burnt in India compared to around half in Thailand whereas the entire residue is burnt in the Philippines. Taking farmers view into account, burning is not only a cost-effective method but it acts as an effective pest control procedure Shukla et al (2005). The short term effects of burning seems more desirable than those from soil incorporation due to the immobilization of inorganic nitrogen which occurs in the latter and can adversely affect productivity in the short term (Singh and Singh, 2001). Also, it helps to reduce diseases that may occur due to reinjection from inoculums in the straw biomass Haysa et al. (2005).The burning of rice crop residue causes atmospheric pollution by emitting trace gases which forms ‘Black Cloud’ adversely affects human health as well as environment. The air pollutants are also a hazard to people’s health particularly to those within local proximity to paddy areas. It is clear from Table 1 that crop residue is a good source of nutrients and important component for the stability of agricultural ecosystems. About 40% of the N, 30-35% of the P, 80-85% of the K and 40-50% of the S absorbed by rice remain in the vegetative parts at maturity.

Labour is one of the biggest input costs for vegetable growers. Vegetable farming is labor intensive and time consuming. Frequently, it is associated with low yield and poor quality production. The constraints are high labor requirements for land clearing, ploughing, bed forming, mulch laying, seeding, transplanting, harvesting and transporting. Mechanization is interjection of improved tools, implements, machines and other equipments between man and materials (soil, water, environment, seed, fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators, irrigation water, agricultural produce and by-products such as fruits, vegetables, and seeds, etc.)

Sowing of Seed: It is a process of planting seeds of crops in well prepared or no till field or nursery beds/pots for raising crops in following methods:

Methods of Sowing: The sowing method is determined by the crop to be sown and resources on the disposal of farmer. There are 6 sowing methods which differ in their merits, demerits and adoption. Those are:

1.Broad casting

2.Broad or Line sowing

3.Dibbling

4.Transplanting

5.Planting

6.Putting seeds behind the plough.

Traditional media channels have served as the backbone of agricultural communication in India for decades, playing a crucial role in disseminating information about farming practices, government schemes, and technological innovations to rural communities. These conventional platforms, including radio, television, print media, and community-based communication methods, continue to remain relevant and effective for promoting natural farming practices, despite the emergence of digital technologies. Understanding the strengths, limitations, and optimal utilization strategies for traditional media is essential for developing comprehensive communication programs that can reach diverse farming populations across various geographical and socio economic contexts. Radio broadcasting represents one of the most successful and enduring traditional media platforms for agricultural extension in India. All India Radio (AIR) has been actively playing a unique role in bridging the digital divide and supporting agricultural extension programmes in India since the experiment in 1952-53 with ‘An Indian Experiment in Farm Radio Forums’ at Poona (now Pune). The effectiveness of radio stems from its accessibility, affordability, and ability to reach illiterate farmers who may face barriers with text-based information sources. Radio programs dedicated to agriculture have evolved significantly from simple one-way

One of the most essential factors governing the growth and morphogenesis of plant tissues in culture is the composition of the culture medium. The basic nutrient requirements of cultured plant cells are very similar to those of whole plants. The basic nutritional requirements of cultured plant cells as well as plants are very similar. However, the nutritional composition varies according to the cells, tissues, organs and protoplasts and also with respect to particular plant species.  The appropriate composition of the medium largely determines the success of the culture. A wide variety of salt mixtures  have been reported in various media. A nutrient medium is defined by its mineral salt composition, carbon source, vitamins, plant growth regulators (PGR) and other organic supplements. When referring to a particular medium, the intention is to identify only the salt composition unless otherwise specified. Any number and concentration of amino acids, vitamins, growth regulators and organic supplements can be added in an infinite variety of compositions to a given salt composition in order to achieve the desired product.

Nurserymen and propagators propagate different types of horticulture plants with seeds, cuttings, and other methods. Regardless of the medium used, an ideal medium should have the following characteristics:

1. The medium should be sufficient firm and dense to told seed or cutting or layer firmly in place during germination or rooting.
2. The volume of the medium should remain constant upon drying or wetting.
3. This medium should be able to hold and deliver an adequate amount of moisture to the seeds, cuttings or layers.

6.1 Role of Media in Democracy: Introduction

The media is the fourth pillar of democracy. The media has a critical role in creating a democratic culture that transcends the political system and gradually enters the general public's consciousness. Voters rely on the political information provided by the media to make their selections. They facilitate discussion and help discover issues facing our society.

Aim: Bending of the lower half of the ring of Thomas splint to an angle 45- 60degree to comfort the limb and to provide free circulation.

Importance

After tieing the ring with bamboo splint and padding the ring with jute and cotton .bending the lower half of the ring upto more than 45 degree angle is highly essential because of placement of the fractured limb within the ring of Thomas splint comfortably, so as to the flow of blood circulation in fractured limb uninterruptedly.

Medication Errors: Definition
Medication errors are defined as preventable events that may cause or lead to inappropriate medication use or patient harm while the medication is under the control of a healthcare professional, patient, or consumer. These errors can occur at any stage of the medication use process, including prescribing, transcribing, dispensing, administering, and monitoring.
Key Aspects of Medication Errors
1. Preventability: The term “medication error” emphasizes that these events are preventable, highlighting the importance of systems and processes designed to minimize risks associated with medication use.
2. Broad Scope: Medication errors encompass a wide range of issues, including:
• Prescribing Errors: Mistakes made during the prescribing process, such as incorrect dosage or inappropriate medication selection.
• Transcribing Errors: Errors that occur when prescriptions are written down or entered into a system.
• Dispensing Errors: Mistakes made by pharmacists or pharmacy technicians when preparing medications for administration.
• Administration Errors: Errors that occur when a medication is given to a patient, such as administering the wrong drug or incorrect dosage.
• Monitoring Errors: Failures in monitoring the effects of medications on patients, which can lead to adverse outcomes.
3. Potential for Harm: While not all medication errors result in harm, many have the potential to cause significant adverse drug events (ADEs). An ADE is defined as any injury resulting from medical intervention related to a drug.
Types of Medication Errors
Medication errors are preventable events that can lead to inappropriate medication use or patient harm. They can occur at any stage of the medication use process, from prescribing to administration. Understanding the various types of medication errors is essential for healthcare providers to implement strategies that enhance patient safety. Below is a detailed overview of the different types of medication errors.

Medication refers to administration of drugs. The route, dose and frequency of the drugs administration is most important in providing health care and welfare of the animals. Wide range of body size and their weight in animals and rearing practice makes the treatment and drug administration strategies a bit complex. Because of this complexity wide range of drug formulary and drug delivery strategies has been developed in animals for health care. Route of drug administration varies from oral administration, parenteral administration to local application on skin and mucus membrane. Similarly forms of the drugs varies from liquids, semisolids to solids for oral administration; from clear solution, suspension, emulsion to powder for parenteral administration; and from powder, cream, paste, suspension, ointment, solutions to emulsifiable concentrates for local application. Oral Administration of Drugs All three forms of drugs viz. liquids (solution, emulsion, suspension), semisolids (paste), and solids

It is a tufted aromatic perennial herb with fibrous roots, erect over 2 m tall, with smooth leaves and bearing a large inflorescence.

Origin: The origin of citronella is Sri Lanka

It is a perennial grass about 2 to 3m tall with profuse tillering habit having linear lanceolate leaves. The inflorescence is a highly branched terminal panicle.

Origin: The origin is India

Mints are a group of perennial herbaceous plants, belonging to the family Lamiaceae: Labiatae, which yield essential oil on distillation. The various species of mints which are commercially cultivated in different parts of the world are: Japanese mint or corn mint or field mint (Mentha arvensis subsp haplocalyx Briquet var. Piperscens Holmes var. Javanica), peppermint (M. Piperita L.) spearmint or garden mint or lamb mint (M. spicata L.) and bergamot mint or orange mint (M. citrata Ehrh.)

• Botanical name: Papavera somnifera
• Family: Papaveraceae
• Origin: Europe
• Useful part: Fruit/Capsule
• Chemical content: Morphine, Narcotine, Codine
• Flowering time: 95–115 days after sowing
• Capsule maturity: 15–20 days after flowering
• Uses: It is also called “God of sleep”. It is used in Painkillar, hypotonic effect and cure to leukaemia
• It is a licence crop and grow in Aari
• One aari equals to 100 m²
• Seed rate: For broadcasting: 7–8 Kg/ha

  For line sowing: 4–5 Kg/ha

• Thinning is important cultural practices.

The relationship between man and plant resources of his surroundings is intimate. Of the 350 tribes inhabiting different parts of India, about 171 dwell in Himalayan region. The inhabitants of the mountain areas use native flora for food, fodder, fiber, fuel, timber and for health care of both human beings and their livestock. These plant resources, particularly medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), not only meet their health care needs but also support their livelihood. Recently the demand of MAPs has transformed from local and traditional needs to global needs. This has adversely affected availability and quality of raw material as also livelihood and health options of the local people. Most of the raw materials are gathered from the forests, and only a few plants are under cultivation. To avoid rampant exploitation of MAPs from nature, there is an urgent need to establish procedures for their cultivation and organized marketing. The present article deals with strategies and actions to protect livelihood options of the indigenous communities inhabiting mountain areas in western Himalaya as well as promote sustainable utilization of MAPs through scientific and technological interventions.

Introduction

India and China are two major Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) producing countries, providing 40% of the global diversity and availability of rare species. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has identified and documented over 9,000 species of medicinal plants that are significant for the pharmaceutical industry (AICRPE 1996). Of these, 2,000 to 2,300 species are used in traditional medicines while at least 150 species are used commercially on a large scale (EXIM Bank 1997).

Horticultural medicinal plants

Throughout recorded history, people have held medicinal plants in high regard due to the many health benefits they provide. Natural cures abound among these botanical marvels, and they may alleviate a wide range of health problems. The wide variety of bioactive substances found in them has been used to create pharmaceutical medications and alternative treatments, suggesting that they may have curative properties. Medicinal plants, such as aloe vera and turmeric, offer a wide range of uses, including pain relief, the treatment of chronic diseases, and general health improvement. A newfound respect for traditional herbal medicine’s knowledge and the need of preserving these priceless resources has emerged in recent years, as contemporary medicine investigates the plants’ unrealized potential.

Introduction
India, renowned for its rich biodiversity and ancient tradition of Ayurveda, is home to an astonishing array of medicinal and aromatic plants. These plants, harboring bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, glycosides, terpenes, and flavonoids, have been harnessed for centuries to prevent, diagnose, and treat various health ailments. Medicinal plants, utilizing parts like leaves, roots, stems, or seeds, offer natural remedies for wellness. Meanwhile, aromatic plants, rich in fragrant volatile oils, are the cornerstone of essential oils, aromatherapy, and perfumery. A Legacy of Healing: History of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Cultivation in India

Ancient India (3000 BCE - 500 CE)
Ayurveda's origins: Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine,
emerged around 3000 BCE, emphasizing the use of medicinal plants.
Vedic period (1500 BCE - 500 BCE)
• Ayurvedic texts like the Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda documented medicinal plant uses.
• Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita (400 BCE - 200 CE): These seminal texts systematically described medicinal plant properties and uses.

Introduction

Medicinal and aromatic plants constitute a major segment of the flora, which provides raw materials for use in the pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and drug industries. The indigenous systems of medicines, developed in India for centuries, make use of many medicinal herbs. These systems include Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and many other indigenous practices. More than 9,000 native plants have established and recorded curative properties and about 1500 species are known for their aroma and flavour. In one of the studies by the World Health Organisation, it is estimated that 80 per cent of the population of developing countries relies on traditional plant based medicines for their health requirements (WHO 1991). Even in many of the modern medicines, the basic composition is derived from medicinal plants and these have become acceptable medicines for many reasons that include easy availability, least side effects, low prices, environmental friendliness and lasting curative property. India and China are the two major producing countries, having 40 per cent of the global biodiversity and availability of rare species. These are well known as the home of medicinal and aromatic crops that constitute a segment of the flora, and provide raw materials to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, fragrance, flavour etc. industries.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION!

Major constraint of medicinal plants: Lack of genuine planting material.

Maximum number of medicinal plants belong to family Asteraceae.

Maximum demand in world market: 1. Senna leaves 2. Isabgol seeds 3. Cassia tora seeds.

India is largest producer of 1. Kewada oil 2. Senna 3. Davana oil 4. Isabgol.

India is 2^nd largest producer of 1. Opium latex 2. Jasmine concrete 3. Tuberose concrete

India is 3^rd largest exporter of periwinkle.

Thailand is largest exporter of sarpagandha leaves.

China is largest producer of 1. Geranium oil 2. Citronella oil.

A large number of people in developing countries have traditionally depends on products derived from plants, especially from forests, for curing human and livestock ailments. Additionally, several aromatic plants are popular for domestic and commercial uses. Collectively they are called medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). About 12.5% of the 4,22,000 plant species documented worldwide are reported to have medicinal values. With dwindling supplies from natural sources and increasing global demand, the medicinal and aromatic plants, will need to be cultivated to ensure their regular supply for processing and value added products.

The term “Medicinal and Aromatic plants” generally denotes those non-aromatic and aromatic plants, which are used for medicinal, perfumery, dye and cosmetic purposes. They are rich in secondary metabolites and are potential sources of drugs. Generally the whole plant roots, stem, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, gums and oleoresins, etc. are used.

India has been considered as treasure house of valuable medicinal and aromatic plant species. Ministry of Environment and Forests have identified and documented over 9500 plant species considering their importance in the pharmaceutical industry. In the present context of ‘back to nature’ in health care, it is relevant that these valuable plant species are not only preserved but also their cultivation developed in order to meet the entire demand of the domestic industries as also to exploit the bright prospect for export. Shift from collection to cultivation of medicinal & aromatic plants will also ensure purity, authenticity and sustainable supply of raw materials required for herbal drugs, including polyherbals.

Medicinal plants are non-food non-plantation crops.

These are rich in secondary metabolites viz. alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavonoides and steroids, etc.

Union government of India has started a project on 'Traditional Knowledge Digital Library' under which it is documenting all Ayurvedic formulations in a digital form to avert patent threats from companies in the developed world

1. Introduction

There are a large number of indigenous rice varieties in India, which are still grown by the tribal people and small farmers of the remote areas where the modern agricultural practices, sufficient foods as well as healthcare systems are a dream. Nature has provided them some alternative ways. They have different indigenous rice varieties with its nutritional and medicinal values. Until recently, rice was considered only a starchy food and a source of carbohydrates and some amount of protein. Rice protein, though small in amount, is of high nutritional value (Chaudhary and Tran, 2001). It has extensive curative properties known from the ancient days. In fact, specific rice varieties with medicinal properties were cultivated and used in the treatment of some ailments in different counties of South East Asia.

During recent times, both at national level and international levels, the land races are being preserved in the gene banks. The scientists said that they were also checking these land races for some such characteristics which were not available in the existing varieties so as to incorporate the same in the present varieties (Sultan and Subba Rao, 2013). Traditional varieties are experiencing an increasing trend among consumers, due to their incredible health benefits for example the traditional varieties possess higher amount of glutamic acid, fiber and vitamins. Some people also credit traditional varieties with other health benefits, such as giving sensations of cooling in the body, improves vocal clarity, eyesight, fertility and mitigating rashes (Caius, 1999).

Gladiolus saundersii

ABSTRACT

Artemisia annua L. is known for the content of anti-malarial drug, artemisinin. It is widely distributed in subtropical, temperate and subtropical zones worldwide and traditionally used for the treatment of various ailments. Artemisinin has been the frontline treatment since the late 1990s and saved countless lives, especially among the world’s poorest children. The major chemical constituents of Artemisia annua L. are sesquiterpenoids and some phenolics. The essential oil of Artemisia contains artemisia ketone, camphor, caryophyllene oxide, 1,8- cineole and -pinene, and these essential oils constituents are known for their medicinal properties.Artemisinin was discovered in 1971 bya Chinese Medicinal Chemist Youyou Tu (Nobel Prize in 2015). As the demand for artemisinin remains high worldwide, exploring the chemical and the genetic variation especially knowledge, about its mechanisms for high-yielding would be more important. The plant extract is also known for other biological activities such as anti- hypertensive, anti-microbial, immuniosuppresive, and antiparasitic activities. To increase the production of artemisinin and to investigate the effect of climate change on artemisinin content will be the major research area in future from Artemisia genus. Exploring the alternative resources such as microbial production and semisynthetic approaches from other easily available natural molecules would be of high demand. Some other molecules from Artemisia should also be focused for the future development of man kind and in drug discovery science. An overview of present status of medicinal applications, phytochemistry, and future perspectives for the research possibilities on the active ingredient Artemisinin from A. annua is discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

During the last decade, considerable attention has been focused on the involvement of oxygen free radical (OFR) in various diseases. Molecular oxygen, while providing an efficient energy from ingested food, results in free radical and peroxide by-products, which have high intrinsic toxicity. Numerous physiological processes in living organisms occasionally produce free radicals, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as by-products. Their broad ranges of effects in biological systems have drawn the attention of many experimental works. ROS have been implicated in the pathophysiology of several clinical disorders, including ischemia, reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, rheumatoid arthritis, neurodegenerative, atherosclerosis, acute hypertension, hemorrhagic shock and diabetes mellitus (Hemnani and Parihar, 1998).

Oxidative stress occurs in a cell or tissue when the concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated exceeds the antioxidant capability of the cell (Simic and Jovanovic, 1986). Although humans and other organisms possess antioxidant defense and repair systems to protect against oxidative damage, these systems are insufficient under certain conditions to prevent the damage totally (Chang and Miles, 1982). Hence, the oxygen free radicals mediated damage to protein, DNA and other biomolecules accumulates during the lifetime of organisms. Many synthetic antioxidant components exhibited toxic or mutagenic effects that have directed the attention to the naturally occurring antioxidants in recent years. A multitude of natural antioxidants have already been isolated from different plant materials such as oilseeds, cereal crops, vegetables, fruits, leaves, roots, spices and herbs (Ramarathnam et al., 1995).

ABSTRACT

Our country is well known for developing into rich and ancient traditional system of medicines based on plants. For centuries, these ancient cultures and professional practicing on traditional system viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha could remain in house hold and pass through generations to generation. India is being a developing country, of late uses bioactive natural products (secondary metabolites) using in vitro culture technology of the medicinal plant species. Recently, commercial utilization of these compounds using modern techniques is in good progress. The developed western affluent world has to now depend on these compounds mostly in drug and pharmaceutical industry in recent years. Orchids as medicinal herbs, details on plant medicinal potentialities, traditional medicinal systems viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha have been described.

Abstract

Since the beginning of the civilization, medicinal plants have been used to prevent and treat various ailments. At present, most of the pharmaceutical/ nutraceutical industries highly depend on wild medicinal plants for the supply of raw materials for extraction of bioactive compounds. As medicinal plants receive increased scientific and commercial attention, there is increasing pressure on the wild medicinal plant populations.

Introduction

Medicinal plants are considered as rich ingredients resources which may be utilized in medicines development pharmacopoeia, non-pharmacopoeia or synthetic industry. Apart from any region, these plants play a critical role within the development of human cultures around the whole world. Plant is a crucial source of drugs and plays a key role in world health. Medicinal herbs or plants are known to be a critical potential source of therapeutics or curative aids. The utilization of medicinal plants has attained a commanding role in health system all over the place the planet. This involves the utilization of medicinal plants not just for the treatment of diseases but also as potential material for maintaining healthiness and conditions. Many countries within the world, that is, two-third of the world’s population depends on herbal medicines for primary health care. The explanations for this are often due to their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility and adaptableness with the physical body poses lesser side effects. Evidently, records showed that most of the used drugs contain plant extracts. Some are containing active ingredients (bioactive components or substances) obtained from plants. Through recent researches, it revealed that plant-derived drugs were mostly discovered from the study of curative, therapeutic, traditional cures and above all the folks knowledge of indigenous people and a few of those claims and believe of individuals are irreplaceable despite the recent advancement in science and technology. A number of the drugs believed to be obtained from plants are aspirin, atropine, artimesinin, colchicine, digoxin, ephedrine, morphine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, quinine, guanidine, reserving, taxol, tubocurarine, vincristine and vinblastine. The importance of medicinal plants can’t be taken lightly; therefore, it’ll be of significance to look at the characteristics and roles of photochemical in a number of the medicinal plants commonly utilized throughout the world.

Feed additives like antibiotics, hormones are successfully employed in chicken production along with basic minerals, vitamins, and nutrients. Because of worries about antibiotic residues in animal tissues and the resulting development of bacterial resistance, the use of antibiotics as growth promoters (AGP) in cattle was outlawed in 2005. Given the rising concerns about antibiotic use and its involvement in antibiotic resistance, the use of plant-based chemicals in animal feed has become essential. Phytogenic feed additives, which are made from plants and their secondary metabolites, are becoming more and more popular as a result of the search for sustainable farming methods.
These natural growth promoters are seen as alternatives to synthetic chemicals, which are often associated with adverse environmental and health impacts. The usage of plant additions, also known as phytobiotics, have existed since the beginning of time, when people and farm animals were treated and prevented with herbs. The unique qualities of herbs and plant additions were effectively utilised by the ancient Greek, Egyptian, Roman, and Chinese civilisations. Phytogenic feed additives offer multiple benefits for livestock, including enhancing growth, improving immunity, supporting digestion, and promoting
overall animal health. Water or alcohol extracts derived from plant additions, whether fresh or dried, fermented, or freeze-dried, can be used in poultry practices.

The therapeutic potential of plants and its parts has been explored since ancient times and has been used for the well being of humans as well as animals. In the era of emergence of multi drug resistant bacteria modern research aims to find out alternative therapeutic approaches preferably from herbal source to combat the infection. Medicinal plants owing to their antibacterial, antioxidant, anti inflammatory capabilities have been used against many bacterial infections in livestock and companion animals. Ethnoveterinary practices have been documented against bacterial diseases in animals like mastitis, colibacillosis, Salmonellosis, pyoderma, otitis externa, gastrointestinal infection, pneumonia and many others, some of which are enlisted below.
Bovine mastitis, predominantly a bacterial disease continues to threaten the dairy sector as it inflicts great economic losses to the dairy farmers. The disease caused by more than 200 species of bacteria is characterized by inflammation of the mammary gland with physical and chemical changes in the milk and pathological changes in the glandular tissue. There is a significant reduction in the milk yield and many times it’s accompanied with abnormalities in the udder, milk and the cow. In addition to this, milk from affected animals may harbor the organisms which are potentially pathogenic to humans. Use of antibiotics is a common practice to cure mastitis.

The control of external parasites and the pertinent disease vectors using chemicals is riddled with various issues and hence there is a huge demand for alternative approaches. Natural products, being a prominent resource for poor farmers, can majorly serve as a cheaper, environment friendly and sustainable alternative. Further, ethno-veterinary and traditional knowledge has provided a diverse array of plants, which need to be validated for their repellent, insecticidal and acaricidal activities to claim their effect against external parasites. Besides, phytochemical study of these therapeutic plants has progressively revealed the existence of a variety of bioactive components in these plant derived extracts, catering to their efficacy against external parasites.
External Parasites in Domestic Animals
External parasites, also known as ectoparasites are organisms that live on the surface of domestic animals, feeding on their blood or skin. Fleas, ticks, mites, lice and flies are among the most common external parasites. These parasites can cause significant health issues in animals including discomfort, skin irritation and even severe diseases. Infestations can lead to conditions such as dermatitis, anemia and secondary infections. Moreover, many external parasites are vectors for serious diseases that can affect both animals and humans. Hence, effective management of these parasites is essential to ensure
the health and well-being of domestic animals.